O  RT 
PACKING 


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OTHER   BOOKS   OF   THE   SAME 
PUBLISHERS 

FRACTICAIi 
EXPORTING 

By  B.  Olnky  Horoii. 

539  pp.,  39  documentary  forms.     6x9.     Cloth. 

Tells  how  to  get  and  handle  export  trade, 
written  especially  for  the  manufacturer,  the 
exporter  and, the  student,  by  an  authority  on 
the  subject  In  general.  A  most  practical  book 
on  all  matters  of  office  and  shipping  practice. 

EXPORTER'S   GAZETTEER 
OF  FOREIGN  MARKETS 

789    pp.,    maps    and    charts.      6x9.      Cloth. 

Compiled   and   edited   by   Lloyd   R.    Morris, 

Research  Editor,  American   Exporter. 

A  condensed  survev  of  the  world's  markets 
and  Industries  published  for  the  use  of  manu- 
facturers, exporters,  bankers,  shipping  and 
allied  trades.  Presents  in  readily  accessible 
form  detailed  and  statistical  information  about 
every  foreign  market. 

EXPORT  TRADE 
DIRECTORY 

Published' annually.     6x9.     Cloth. 

A  complete  list  of  the  export  commission 
houses,  foreign  buyers,  manufacturers'  export 
agents,  foreign  exchange  banks  and  bankers, 
marine  insurance  companies,  export  truckmen, 
foreign  freight  forwarders,  etc.,  in  all  the  prin- 
cipal United  States  ports  ;  also  foreign  Consu- 
lates in  the  United  States,  American  Consulates 
abroad,   etc. 


EXPORT   PACKING 

A  Guide  to  the  Methods  Employed  by 
Successful  Shippers 


By  C.   C.   MARTIN 

WITH  CHAPTERS  BY 


D.  T.  ABERCROMBIE,  FORMERLY  LT.-COL.  QUARTERMASTER  CORPS,  U.  S.  ARMY; 
H.  N.  KNOWLTON,  FORMERLY  CAPTAIN  ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT, 

u.  8.  army;   m.  c.  fitz  gerald,  manager  of  TRANS- 

POBTATION,    GENERAL  ELECTRIC   COMPANY 


AMERICAN   EXPORTER 
THE  JOHNSTON   EXPORT  PUBLISHING  CO. 

PENN  TERMINAL  BUILDING 
370  SEVENTH  AVENUE 

NEW  YORK  CITY 

Boston,        Philadelphia,        Cleveland,         Detroit,        Chicago, 

St.   Louis,        San  Francisco 

1921 


V 


•J 


/ 


Copyright,  1921, 
By  the  JOHNSTON  EXPORT  PUBLISHING  CO. 

PENN  TERMINAL  BUILDING 

370  Seventh  Avenue,  New  York  City 

u.  s.  A. 


Press  of 

J.  J.  Little  &   Ives  Company 

New  York,   U.  S.  A. 


TO 

HARRISON  C.  LEWIS 

WITH 

FRIENDSHIP  AND  ESTEEM 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface 1 

CHAPTER  I 
The  Problem 3 


CHAPTER  II 

What  Export  Merchants  Say  About  Packing      .        .      19 

CHAPTER  III 

The  Construction  of  Boxes,  Crates  and  Bales    .        .      48 

By  H.  N.  Knowlton 

CHAPTER  IV 

Practical  Notes  on  Export  Shipping      .        .        .        .85. 
By  M.  C.  FiTZ  Gerald 

CHAPTER  V 
Official  Specifications — Expert  Instructions       .        .    115 

CHAPTER  VI 

Baling  Versus  Casing 162 

By  David  T.  Abercrombie 

CHAPTER  VII 
The  Forest  Products  Laboratory  at  Madison,  Wisconsin    178 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Climate   and   Port    Facilities   Affecting   Manner   of 

Packing 201 


432 J  77 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  IX 
Pilfering      .        . 219 

CHAPTER  X 

Customs  Regulations  as  Affecting  Packing    .        .        .    231 

CHAPTER  XI 
The  Packing  of  Automobiles  and  Motor  Trucks    .        .    304 

CHAPTER  XII 
Shrinking  the  Package 324 

CHAPTER  XIII 
The  Packing  of  Machinery      .        .        .        .        .        .    332 

CHAPTER  XIV 
Packing  of  Agricultural  Machinery      ....    369 

CHAPTER  XV 

The  Packing  of  Hardware,  Tools,  Automobile  Acces- 
sories, Small  Apparatus 406 

CHAPTER  XVI 

Export  Packing  of  Glass,  Glassware  and  Exceptionally 

Fragile  Goods 433 

CHAPTER  XVII 
Export  Packing  of  Textiles  and  Apparel      .        .        .    470 

CHAPTER  XVIII 
Packing  Furniture     .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .    489 

CHAPTER  XIX 
Packing  of  Tinned  Goods 519 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XX 
Export  Packing  of  Goods  in  Cartons      ....    546 

CHAPTER  XXI 
Export  Shipments  in  Barrels 562 

CHAPTER  XXII 

Export    Shipments    in    Bags,    Bundles    and   without 

Packing 593 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

Export  Shipments  in  Drums  and  Carboys      .        .        .    613 

CHAPTER  XXIV 
Export  Shipping  op  Bulky  Articles       .        .  "      .        .    627 

CHAPTER  XXV 
Packing  Practices  in  Exporting  Sundry  Commodities  .    643 

CHAPTER  XXVI 
Foreign  Parcel  Post  Shipments 681 


ui 


PREFACE 

THE  plan  has  been  consistently  followed  throughout 
this  book  of  having  the  men  who  are  practically 
and  intimately  in  touch  with  packing  problems  tell 
the  story,  whether  these  men  be  of  national,  even  inter- 
national reputation,  such  as  Lieut.  Colonel  David  T. 
Abercrombie,  Mr.  M.  C.  Fitz  Gerald  or  Captain  H.  N. 
Knowlton,  who  have  contributed  special  chapters,  or 
whether  they  be  those  who  are  daily  in  touch  with  the 
problem  in  the  great  and  small  manufacturing  establish- 
ments throughout  the  land.  To  a  large  extent  my  own 
work  has  been  restricted  to  that  of  editor  and  has  con- 
sisted in  arranging  and  assembling  the  material  at  hand, 
and  I  am  convinced  that  any  book  on  packing  to  be  of 
value  must  necessarily  be  written  in  this  way. 

My  thanks  therefore  are  not  alone  due  to  the  gentle- 
men who  have  been  good  enough  to  contribute  signed 
chapters  to  this  volume,  and  who  have  done  so,  let  it  be 
said,  in  a  spirit  of  generous  desire  to  assist  foreign 
trade ;  my  obligation  is  equally  great  to  those  public  spir- 
ited men  and  organizations  who  have  placed  freely  at 
my  disposal  not  alone  a  wealth  of  photographic  mate- 
rial, but  have  also  given  me  the  benefit  of  their  best 
critical  judgment  both  in  reference  to  the  packing  prob- 
lem in  general  and  to  their  own  individual  work  in  par- 
ticular. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  material  that  might  have  been 
included  in  this  volume  which  I  have  been  compelled  to 
omit  because  of  mere  physical  limitations,  for  it  would 
not  have  been  at  all  difficult  to  have  collected  sufficient 
data  to  make  two  books  of  this  size.  However,  such  ad- 
ditional material  would  have  been  in  certain  instances 
a  repetition  of  what  we  have,  and  I  do  not  believe  that 
any  essential  phase  of  the  problem  has  been  omitted. 
At  the  same  time  in  addition  to  the  experimental  and 

1 


2  PREFACE 

other  work  mentioned  here,  recognition  should  be  given 
of  the  developments  that  are  taking  place  through  the 
efforts  of  such  organizations  as  the  National  Canners' 
Association,  the  National  Association  of  Egg  Case  and 
Egg  Case  Filler  Manufacturers,  the  National  Associa- 
tion of  Box  Manufacturers,  the  Mellon  Institute  of  In- 
dustrial Kesearch  of  the  University  of  Pittsburgh,  the 
Glass  Container  Association  of  America,  the  American 
Society  for  Testing  Materials,  The  Container  Club  and 
other  groups.  In  a  number  of  cases,  however,  the  in- 
vestigations have  to  do  purely  with  containers  for  do- 
mestic shipment,  with  which  this  volume  does  not  con- 
cern itself,  while  inclusion  of  more  matter  referring  to 
export  would  have  made  this  book  exceed  all  reasonable 
bounds. 

Attention  should  be  called  to  the  fact  that  in  a  number 
of  instances  the  exigencies  of  good  bookmaking  as  well  as 
the  number  of  photographs  in  relation  to  the  quantity 
of  texty  have  made  it  impossible  to  place  photographs 
facing  corresponding  descriptive  text  matter.  This  is 
notably  the  case  with  the  photographs  illustrating  Mr. 
Fitz  Gerald's  article,  and  it  has  been  further  necessary 
to  place  a  number  of  these  photographs  toward  the  front 
of  the  book.  However,  as  page  references  appear  in  all 
cases  it  is  not  believed  that  this  is  a  material  consid- 
eration. 

C.  C.  Martin. 

New  York,  December  1,  1920. 


EXPORT  PACKING 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  PROBLEM 

THERE  are  a  good  many  of  our  exporters,  un- 
fortunately too  many,  who  are  inclined  to  look 
upon  the  problems  of  export  packing  in  that  smug 
fashion  which  reduces  them  to  the  position  of  no  problems 
at  all.  Indeed  it  seems  to  be  a  habit  nowadays  to  con-  7\ 
sider  the  export  packing  situation  as  something  that  has 
been  well  solved,  leaving  us  free  to  move  along  to  the  dis- 
cussion of  more  pressing  and  more  profitable  subjects. 
Export  packing,  in  other  w^ords,  sometimes  seems  to  be 
regarded  as  a  difficulty  that  no  longer  exists  and  one  that 
no  longer  requires  study  or  consideration. 

The  statement  in  the  foregoing  paragraph  is  not  an 
exaggeration.  To  mention  export  packing  to  a  large, 
and,  it  seems,  constantly  increasing  number  of  exporters, 
is  to  mention  a  subject  that  has  been  worn  threadbare; 
that  belongs  to  the  kindergarten  of  exporting,  and  that 
should  give  way  to  more  constructive  and  fundamental 
problems.  However,  without  in  any  way  attempting  to 
be  radical  or  even  original,  I  believe  that  export  packing 
is  one  of  the  most  fundamental  of  export  problems.  It 
may  even  be  put  in  a  category  with  export  banking  and 
export  selling  in  point  of  importance. 

Why  There  is  a  Problem. — It  is  true  that  the  man  in 
some  other  part  of  the  world  than  our  own  is  interested 
in  terms  of  credits.  He  is  interested  in  the  quality  of 
goods,  conditions  of  delivery  and  the  many  other  factors 
that  go  to  make  good  service  and  good  exporting.  But 
it  appears  that  in  a  sense  all  of  these  things  rest  on  the 
character  of  the  export  package.    The  foregoing  factors 

3 


tC 


4  EXPORT  PACKING 

lose  their  importance  and  value  if  the  goods  received  are 
not  received  in  good  shape.  A  machine  may  be  the  mar- 
velous machine;  it  may  effect  economies  of  all  sorts; 
it  may  be  just  the  machine  indicated  in  the  particular 
case.  But  if  it  arrives  broken ;  if  it  is  necessary  to  wait 
months  for  new  parts,  much  of  the  good  will  of  the  cus- 
tomer is  going  to  be  lost.  However,  this  is  merely  one 
phase  of  the  packing  situation ;  for  packing  must  not  only 
be  good  packing,  it  must  be  economical  packing;  it  must 
conform  to  the  peculiar  custom-house  conditions ;  it  must 
be  adapted  to  a  wide  variety  of  special  factors  which  are 
too  frequently  either  ignored  or  unknown  on  the  part  of 
many  of  the  export  fraternity. 

Purpose  of  this  Book. — The  purpose  of  this  book  is  not 
to  solve  all  the  problems  of  export  packing.  That  would 
not  be  a  purpose ;  it  would  be  a  presumption.  The  pur- 
pose is  to  discuss  the  fundamental  principles  of  export 
packing;  to  suggest  certain  rules  which  if  observed  will 
produce  the  proper  export  package,  and  to  present  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  concrete  examples  to  serve  as  guides 
both  in  the  administrative  office  and  in  the  actual  packing 
shop. 

The  writer  does  not  mean  here  to  suggest  that  our 
export  packing  in  general  is  bad.  He  does  not  mean  to 
suggest  that  a  large  percentage  of  it  is  bad.  American 
export  packing  is  generally  good,  although  much  of  it  is 
not  the  packing  produced  either  by  the  English,  French 
or  Belgians,  and  I  do  believe  that  in  a  good  many  in- 
stances our  export  packing  could  be  greatly  improved. 

Evidence  from  New  York.— For  the  curious  in  this 
matter  a  trip  around  the  docks  of  New  York  is  illuminat- 
ing. Not  so  long  ago  the  writer  saw  two  large  export 
packages  being  hauled  along  Fulton  Street,  the  destina- 
tion marks  showing  Amsterdam.  These  cases  were  about 
4x5x4  feet  in  size  and  weighed  approximately  800  kilos 
each.  The  wood  used  was  three-quarter  inch  stuff  and 
there  was  no  strapping  of  any  description  on  either  case. 
One  of  the  boards  on  the  top  of  one  of  the  cases  had 
loosened  even  before  being  put  aboard  ship,  and  was  flap- 


THE  PROBLEM  5 

ping  from  side  to  side  with  the  movement  of  the  truck. 
We  can  well  imagine  how  these  goods  reached  Amster- 
dam, even  if  re-coopered  before  loading  on  steamer,  and 
we  may  also  believe  that  the  manufacturer  of  these 
goods  thought  he  was  providing  an  adequate  case.  At 
least  it  may  be  assumed  that  he  did.  But  whatever  the 
belief  on  the  part  of  the  manufacturer,  the  fact  is  that 
he  was  not  fair  to  his  customer,  he  was  not  fair  to  him- 
self, and  most  important  of  all  he  was  not  fair  to  that 
national  prestige  which  it  should  be  the  aim  and  desire 
of  every  exporter  to  foment  and  develop. 

A  New  Spirit  Abroad. — Fortunately,  there  is  a  new 
spirit  abroad  in  this  question  of  export  packing.  To- 
day the  man  who  is  considering  constructive  export  work 
is  also  considering  constructive  export  packing.  The  late 
war  had  much  to  do  with  this  new  viewpoint.  The  prob- 
lem of  the  government  in  its  overseas  work  was  not  only 
colossal,  it  was  also  one  of  extreme  urgency.  On  one  side 
we  had  millions  of  fighting  men  who  had  to  be  fed  and 
clothed  and  provisioned  in  the  smallest  possible  space 
of  time.  On  the  other  we  had  a  vast  quantity  of  goods 
to  be  shipped  in  a  relatively  small  number  of  vessels. 
This  condition  developed  remarkable  skill  and  resource 
in  designing  and  constructing  the  export  package ;  and  it 
concentrated  attention  on  packing,  as  such,  as  had  never 
been  the  case  before.  The  result  was  that  really  re- 
markable things  were  done,  not  only  in  the  sense  of  ade- 
quate packing,  but  also  in  that  of  economical  packing. 

With  this  as  a  start,  packing  research  as  an  integral 
part  of  export  technique  is  rapidly  being  developed.  The 
men  in  control  of  new  combinations  of  capital  or  products 
see  that  the  transportation  of  goods  is  as  important  as 
the  production  of  goods.  Space  saved  is  money  saved; 
goods  that  arrive  in  the  same  shape  as  they  left  the  fac- 
tory are  an  extremely  valuable  business  asset. 

This  new  development  is  one  of  the  most  encouraging 
signs  of  the  times  in  exporting.  It  promises  to  remove  a 
very  large  and  important  obstacle  to  the  progress  of 
export  trade.     It  is  to  be  hoped  that  by  the  very  force 


6  EXPORT  PACKING 

of  competition  it  will  also  lead  certain  very  well  satis- 
fied manufacturers  and  exporters  to  mend  their  ways, 
and  that  it  will  force  them  to  send  packages  abroad  that 
are  a  credit  both  to  the  contents  of  the  packages  and  to 
the  country  of  origin. 

The  Export  Problem  is  Special.— The  experience  a 
shipper  has  gained  in  packing  for  the  domestic  market 
will  not  always  serve  him  in  the  foreign  field.  At  home 
we  are  dealing  with  conditions  of  astonishing  simplicity 
compared  to  those  abroad.  Indeed  a  man  who  is  working 
for  foreign  trade  should,  in  a  measure,  wipe  off  his 
domestic  experience  slate.  What  are  some  of  the  con- 
siderations that  should  enter  into  the  equation? 

Let  Us  Follow  the  Goods. — Let  us  take  one  portion  of 
the  world,  for  example,  the  Argentine.  If  I  had  a  first 
order  to  be  shipped  to  the  Argentine  and  it  was  my  in- 
tention to  go  into  the  export  business  seriously,  I  should 
do  a  great  many  things  before  I  let  that  first  shipment 
be  packed.  I  should  get  first  of  all  a  good  atlas  and  I 
would  see  where  this  country  of  the  Argentine  is  located. 
I  would  make  inquiries  and  determine  just  what  route  or 
routes  these  goods  of  mine,  that  bore  my  name  or  my 
factory  imprint,  were  going  to  take.  I  should  consider 
carefully  the  name  of  the  city  in  which  the  consignee 
lived.  Is  it  a  port,  or  is  it  a  point  in  the  interior?  If  a 
port,  how  are  the  goods  taken  off  the  ship?  Are  they 
landed  directly  on  the  dock  or  are  they  transhipped  by 
lighter?  If  an  interior  point,  how  do  my  goods  get  to 
this  interior  point?  Are  they  shipped  and  handled  by 
modem  methods,  over  modern  railroads,  or  are  they 
transported  over  mountains  and  along  rivers  through 
primitive  countries  by  primitive  men,  with  only  the 
simplest  means  for  transporting  available  ?  I  would  give 
considerable  study  to  this  question,  and  only  after  I  had 
thoroughly  informed  myself  would  I  proceed  to  take  up 
another  point.  This  second  point  might  well  be  the 
climatic  conditions  to  which  my  goods  would  be  exposed. 
I  know  fairly  well  domestic  conditions,  but  what  I  need 
to  do  is  to  discover  what  these  conditions  are  abroad. 


THE  PROBLEM  7 

And  so  I  watch  these  goods  in  fancy  as  they  are 
loaded  on  the  boat  in  New  York,  and  I  see  them  pass 
down  the  Atlantic  on  their  long  voyage  to  the  Argentine. 
I  consult  books  and  obtain  information,  and  I  learn  that 
my  goods  pass  through  the  tropics;  that  they  may  be 
stowed  close  to  boilers;  and  that  consequently  they 
should  be  protected  against  heat,  in  case  they  are  sensi- 
tive to  this  influence.  Likewise  my  goods  must  be  pro- 
tected against  moisture,  for  the  holds  of  vessels  are  none 
too  dry,  and  an  open  hatch  may  let  in  a  good  portion  of 
ocean  brine. 

Special  Instructions. — On  this  first  order  I  receive,  I 
notice  that  the  specification  of  the  packing  of  the  goods 
is  different,  in  its  arrangement,  from  that  I  am  accus- 
tomed to  follow  for  my  domestic  trade.  I  am  also  told  in 
this  order  to  limit  the  size  and  weight  of  the  package  and 
to  specify  the  gross,  tare  and  net  weight  in  kilos.  I  am 
also  given  certain  instructions  with  reference  to  invoices 
and  other  papers.  This  is  novel,  but  after  careful  in- 
vestigation I  find  that  every  one  of  the  instructions  has 
an  intimate  relation  to  the  conditions  in  the  Argentine, 
and  that  if  I  fail  to  follow  any  one  of  them  it  will  mean 
loss  of  money  or  inconvenience  to  my  client. 

This  is  a  simple  statement  of  a  situation  which  con- 
fronts every  exporter  during  each  working  day.  The 
writer  does  not  wish  to  convey  the  impression  that  ex- 
port business  is  beset  with  difficulties  that  more  than  bal- 
ance the  advantages  of  export  trade.  But  what  he  does 
wish  to  urge  is  that  export  business  is  a  special  business 
which  should  be  treated  conscientiously.  We  have  at  the 
present  time  the  greatest  opportunity  that  has  ever  been 
presented  any  nation.  With  little  or  no  effort  on  our  part 
unavoidable  necessity  has  brought  the  world  to  our 
doors,  and  by  proper  conduct  we  can  develop  and  main- 
tain a  great  export  business  that  will  be  of  vast  impor- 
tance in  the  future  history  of  our  country.  But  at  the 
present  time  we  are  being  tried  and  we  are  most  certainly 
being  tested.  Let  us  hope  that  the  good  behavior  con- 
tinues that  is  noticeable  in  certain  quarters. 


8  EXPORT  PACKING 

The  New  Viewpoint  in  Trade. — During  the  last  few 
years  there  has  taken  place  a  radical  change  in  the  view- 
point of  the  average  manufacturer  and  merchant.  It  is 
no  longer  a  question  of  merely  selling  goods ;  it  is  prin- 
cipally important  to  keep  the  goods  sold,  once  they  are 
sold,  and  to  sell  more  goods.  The  predatory  merchant  or 
manufacturer  is  rapidly  passing  away.  Into  his  room 
there  is  stepping  the  man  who  builds  his  organization  on 
service,  and  this  word  in  its  broad  and,  let  it  be  said, 
modem  acceptation,  is  the  foundation  of  modern 
business. 

In  this  connection  I  cannot  do  better  than  quote  a 
portion  of  the  admirable  monthly  bulletin,  published  by 
The  National  City  Bank  of  New  York,  and  written  by 
Mr.  George  E.  Koberts.  In  the  issue  of  February,  1919, 
Mr.  Roberts  cogently  remarks : 

*  *  No  investment  is  worth  anything,  or  can  have  stand- 
ing in  any  financial  market,  unless  it  is  based  upon  a 
value  arising  from  public  service.  It  must  be  shown  to 
meet  a  social  need  in  a  manner  that  will  secure  at  least  a 
share  of  the  popular  patronage,  and  every  new  business 
is  expected  to  justify  itself  by  showing  that  it  can  render 
a  new  or  superior  service.  Old  investments  lose  their 
value  if  new  ones  render  better  service,  and  there  is  the 
familiar  spectacle  of  long-established  business  houses 
passing  into  decay  and  oblivion  because  unable  to  keep 
up  in  service  with  younger  houses  in  the  field.  The  study 
of  every  business  organization  and  every  individual  en- 
titled to  any  position  in  the  business  world  is  how  to  im- 
prove the  service  it  is  rendering  to  the  public.  Any  man 
who  has  a  new  idea  of  practical  usefulness  to  the  public 
has  a  career  assured.  Emerson  said  that  if  any  man 
could  make  a  mouse-trap  better  than  all  others  the  world 
would  make  a  beaten  track  to  his  door.'' 

Export   Packing  is   Export   Service.— Good   export 
packing  is  nothing  more  than  an  extension  of  service,  and 
->i  as  Mr.  Roberts  points  out,  the  house  that  gives  the  best 
service  is  the  one  which  will  succeed.    For  proper  pack- 
ing means  nothing  more  than  conscientious  consideration 


TEE  PROBLEM  9 

of  the  interests  of  the  ultimate  customer,  with  an  equal 
admixture  of  consideration  for  the  interests  of  the  man- 
ufacturer who  is  trying  to  win  the  good-will  and  the 
trade  of  this  ultimate  customer.  There  are  too  many 
shippers  whose  effort  seems  to  be  to  spend  as  little  money  ^Z 
and  time  as  possible  on  the  packing  of  their  goods,  while  ^^ 
in  point  of  fact  they  should  try  to  see  how  much  money 
and  time  they  can  profitably  spend  on  the  protecting  en- 
velope of  the  goods  in  question.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  a  vast  amount  of  valuable  export  business  is  lost 
by  careless  packing,  a  condition  which  at  once  convinces 
the  customer  that  the  shipper  either  is  not  interested 
in  the  goods,  or  has  not  taken  to  heart  in  the  least  the 
interests  of  the  purchaser. 

A  Common  Impression.— As  far  as  possible  the  writer 
wishes  to  avoid  in  this  book  any  suggestion  of  unmerited 
criticism,  but  throughout  the  world  there  seems  to  be 
an  impression  that  the  American  manufacturer  is  always 
willing  to  take  an  order,  but  that  he  does  not  concern 
himself  unduly  as  to  when  he  is  going  to  ship  the  goods 
or  as  to  the  condition  in  which  they  are  going  to  arrive 
at  their  ultimate  destination.  To  offset  this  impression 
the  first  consideration  on  receiving  an  order  from  abroad, 
and  after  its  due  ac<?eptance,  should  be  to  appreciate 
the  fact  that  a  man  thousands  of  miles  away  has  placed 
in  our  hands  a  trust  of  no  inconsiderable  magnitude,  and 
that  we  should  faithfully  and  honestly  fulfill  that  trust. 
We  should  see  that  the  goods  arrive  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible at  the  foreign  port,  and  above  all  should  we  see  that 
when  they  do  arrive  they  may  at  once  be  put  on  sale  or 
in  use,  as  the  case  may  be.  It  should  be  a  point  of  honor 
with  every  shipper  to  work  for  the  benefit  and  business 
convenience  of  the  foreign  client. 

Cheap  Packing  is  False  Economy. — To-day  the  Ameri- 
can market  is  flooded  with  all  sorts  of  packing  devices 
which  in  too  many  cases  commend  themselves  solely  be-      / 
cause  of  their  cheapness.    Cheap  packing  has  never  yet  '>\^ 
proved  anything  but  a  false  economy.    The  foreign  man- 
ufacturer, in  general,  has  apparently  adopted  as  a  prin- 


10  EXPORT  PACKING 

ciple  that  of  making  his  package  as  good  as  his  product, 
while  in  the  effort  to  constantly  lower  costs  the  American 
does  not  neglect  to  take  a  slice  off  his  packing.  But  it 
should  never  be  lost  sight  of  that  the  foreign  buyer  is 
not  interested  in  this  false  economy,  for  he  will  not  hesi- 
tate to  pay  for  good  packing.  The  writer  has  known  in- 
stances in  which  this  has  been  insisted  on  because  of  lack 
of  confidence  in  the  ordinary  packing  of  the  average 
manufacturer.  When  a  foreign  house  gives  special  in- 
structions in  reference  to  packing,  it  is  not  caprice  nor 
any  rare  geometrical  or  artistic  sense  that  originates 
these  instructions.  The  importer  knows  what  the  condi- 
tions in  his  country  are,  and  his  packing  instructions  are 
gauged  entirely  by  these  conditions.  Every  set  of  in- 
structions for  the  packing  of  export  goods  should  be 
followed  by  the  manufacturer  absolutely  to  the  letter; 
and  if  the  instructions  are  not  given,  it  is  the  duty  of 
our  exporters  to  inform  themselves  of  the  conditions  at 
the  foreign  point  and  adapt  the  packing  to  those  con- 
ditions. 

The  Export  Packing  Triangle.— The  export  packing 
problem  is  frequently  complicated  by  virtue  of  the  fact 
that  the  manufacturer  does  not  always  pack  his  own 
goods  for  export.  This  condition  usually  arises  when  the 
manufacturer  has  his  goods  packed  at  seaboard  by  a 
house  making  a  specialty  of  this  business,  or  when  the 
I  manufacturer  is  not  the  actual  consignor  of  the  goods. 
^  In  the  first  instance,  the  decision  to  have  the  goods 
packed  by  other  than  the  producing  organization,  may 
be  due  to  the  fact  that  some  other  concern  has  a  better 
equipment  for  packing,  or  it  may  be  that  the  manufac- 
turer does  not  wish  to  be  bothered  with  the  details  of 
export  packing.  It  is  entirely  proper  under  such  condi- 
tions to  have  the  work  done  by  some  other  house,  and 
there  are  a  number  of  concerns  which  are  well  equipped 
to  give  good  service. 

The  second  instance  comprises  that  large  export  busi- 
ness which  is  handled  by  a  second  party.  It  may  be  a 
\     commission  house,  it  may  be  a  purchasing  agent  or  it  may 


Vrntrtesy  of  General  tSlectric  Co. 
(1)     Casing  a  Large  Induction  Motor. 
A  large  motor  with  extended  base  and  beariny.    Note  lining  of  cotton  covered, 
waterproof  paper,  bolting  to  skid,  blocking  longitudinally  and  laterally,  bracing 
and   slotting  fnr  skids  as  fully  explained   in  text.     Note  also  ventilating  holes 
covered  with  wire  screens. 


Courtesy  of  General  Electric  Co. 
(2)     Completed  Case  for  Large  Induction  Motor. 

Note  ventilating  holes  provided  to  prevent  accumulation  of  moisture  by  con- 
densation and  relieve  air  pressure  on  inside  of  case.  These  holes  are  covered 
on  the  inside  by  wire  screen.     Photograph  taken  before  case  was  marked. 

11 


Courtesy  oj  General  Electric  Co. 

(3)     Skidding  Stator  Element  of  Synchronous  Converter. 

Note  that  skid  is  lined  with  cotton  covered  waterproof  paper.  Note  that 
bearing  part  of  skid  having  contact  with  finished  part  of  machine  is  coated 
with  rust  preventative. 


Courtesy  of  General  Electric  Co, 
(4)     Stator  Element  Partially  Boxed. 
Note    comer   posts   as   support   against   collapsing.      Eyelets    at   top    are   for 
convenience  in  lifting  and  are  removed  before  final  closing  of  case  and  fastened 
to  inside  of  case. 

12 


THE  PROBLEM  13 

be  any  one  of  the  many  different  organizations  or  in- 
dividuals acting  in  this  or  that  capacity.  But  right  here  > 
is  where  originates  a  great  deal  of  our  faulty  packing,  X 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  vastly  more  comes  into  exist- 
ence at  this  point  than  in  the  case  of  a  manufacturer 
dealing  direct  with  a  foreign  customer  and  packing  the 
goods  in  the  factory  of  origin. 

Perils  of  the  Triangle. — It  may  be  that  the  manufac- 
turer is  doing  his  very  best  to  branch  out  in  foreign 
trade.  He  may  be  packing  his  goods  suitably  for  ship- 
ment to  seaboard,  but  it  frequently  happens  that  these 
domestic  packages  are  not  changed  in  the  least  by  the 
actual  exporter,  and  there  is  consequent  loss  both  for  the 
ultimate  purchaser  and  the^  manufacturer  himself.  On 
the  other  hand  the  exporter  of  the  goods  may  have  a 
carefully  prepared  order  form  on  which  is  described  in 
detail  the  export  package.  The  goods  are  shipped  by  the 
manufacturer,  but  absolutely  no  attention  is  paid  to  the 
instructions  in  regard  to  packing.  When  the  goods  come 
to  the  port  of  shipment  they  are  not  repacked  and  are 
sent  abroad  in  their  fragile  domestic  coverings. 

This  is  not  a  difficult  problem  to  solve ;  it  is  merely  a 
question  of  having  an  agreement  in  reference  to  respon- 
sibility. Any  purchasing  agent  or  commission  house 
should  have  a  definite  understanding  with  their  sources  of 
supply  as  to  who  is  going  to  do  the  packing.  If  the  manu- 
facturer, well  and  good ;  if  the  commission  house,  then  an 
organization  must  be  built  up  which  can  take  care  of  this 
packing  problem.  This  is  no  exceptional  situation,  as 
there  are  a  number  of  commission  houses  in  New  York, 
not  to  mention  other  ports,  that  have  very  efficient  and 
able  packing  departments.  To  these  departments  all 
their  goods  are  brought  and  repacked  for  export. 

To  be  sure  there  is  always  going  to  be  defective  pack- 
ing, and  the  foregoing  paragraph  has  indicated  where 
most  of  this  defective  packing  will  originate.  There  will 
always  be  the  intervention  of  the  third  party,  and  it  is 
probable  that  in  many  cases  this  third  party  will  be  more 
interested  in  the  cash  against  documents  than  he  is  in 


14  EXPORT  PACKING 

how  the  goods  are  packed.  But  be  this  as  it  may,  there 
is  still  a  wide  field  for  improvement  in  direct  shipments 
from  the  factory. 

Pilfering. — Pilfering  is  a  common  hazard  to  which 
shipments  are  liable  in  transport,  and  many  ingenious 
methods  have  been  adopted  to  protect  goods  that  are  ex- 
posed to  this  danger.  But  still  it  continues  to  exist  and 
many  a  foreign  importer,  be  he  branch  manager  of  an 
export  house  or  native  of  the  country,  has  received 
cases  apparently  in  good  condition  only  to  find  up'bn  ex- 
amination that  all  or  a  portion  of  the  contents  have  dis- 
appeared. The  goods  particularly  exposed  to  pilfering 
are  merchandise  the  units  of  which  are  small,  such  as 
canned  goods  of  every  kin(J,  wines,  liquors,  boots  and 
shoes,  articles  of  clothing  for  men  and  women,  stationery 
of  all  kinds,  toilet  articles,  hardware,  hats,  and  so  on. 
Many  schemes  have  been  tried  to  meet  the  evil ;  tongued 
and  grooved  lumber,  iron  straps,  safety  clips  of  various 
kinds,  etc.  The  use  of  a  wire  drawn  tightly  about  the 
middle  of  a  box  and  securely  fastened  into  the  body  of 
the  box  has  been  recommended,  but  it  frequently  hap- 
pens that  wood  not  thoroughly  dry  is  used  for  the  cases 
and  when  the  wood  shrinks  naturally  the  wire  loosens. 
This  is  a  problem  that  may  be  difficult  of  perfect  solu- 
tion. Individual  ingenuity  will,  in  many  cases,  however, 
accomplish  much,  and  it  is  probable  that  each  exporter 
can  find  a  remedy  applicable  to  his  especial  needs. 

Proper  Marking  of  Great  Importance. — Proper  mark- 
ing of  a  shipment  is  of  as  much  importance  as  proper 
packing.  If  the  marking  is  indistinct,  easily  obliterated, 
or  improperly  placed  it  may  cause  great  trouble  and  an- 
noyance, without  considering  the  possibility  of  loss  and 
months  of  delay  in  receipt  of  the  shipment.  In  fact,  it 
may  be  stated  generally  that  improper  marking  or  in- 
correct marking  causes  just  as  much  loss  as  improper 
packing,  and  this  occurs  even  in  instances  where  consid- 
erable care  is  used  in  marking  and  checking  cases.  The 
writer  knows  several  fairly  prominent  export  houses  that 
would  give  a  good  deal  to  be  absolutely  sure  that  there 


TEE  PROBLEM  15 

was  never  a  mistake  made  in  the  marking  of  their  cases. 

The  first  requisite  for  any  class  of  marking  is  legibil- 
ity and  permanency  under  all  conditions  to  which  the 
package  may  be  subjected.  This  does  not  alone  refer  to 
the  paint  used  in  making  the  mark,  but  also  to  the  place 
on  the  package  where  the  mark  is  put.  There  is  a  great 
deal  of  complaint  on  this  score  in  the  matter  of  baled  J 
goods,  and  with  this  class  of  shipments  the  mark  should  ' 
never  be  placed  on  the  bagging  nor  on  a  tag  tied  to  the 
bag.  Obviously  both  of  these  methods  are  insecure,  and 
the  marking  should  be  done  by  using  a  plate  of  metal 
which  in  turn  is  secured  to  the  iron  bands  around  the  bale. 
This  will  insure  permanency,  considering  this  word  from 
every  angle. 

Assuming  that  there  is  legible  and  permanent  mark- 
ing, the  difficulty  is  by  no  means  overcome,  as  a  great 
opportunity  for  trouble  due  to  incorrect  or  improper 
marking  still  exists.  Errors  of  this  sort  may  be  made  in 
a  great  variety  of  ways.  For  example,  it  is  very  common 
in  export  shipments  to  find  one  or  more  letters  enclosed 
in  some  geometrical  figure  such  as  a  diamond  or  a  circle. 
In  this  instance  it  would  be  a  most  decided  error  to  leave 
off  the  geometrical  device,  just  as  serious  as  to  leave  off 
the  letters  themselves.  In  other  instances  we  find  errors 
in  the  letters  themselves.  For  example,  the  letters  may  be 
**C-M**,  but  on  the  case  they  are  made  to  appear  ^^M-0**. 
Frequently  one  letter  should  appear  over  another  letter 
and  in  the  marks  we  find  the  position  of  the  two  letters 
reversed.  Then  again  the  marks  may  be  legible  when 
viewed  close  up  but  indistinct  when  seen  at  a  distance  be- 
cause of  the  small  size  of  the  characters.  It  also  happens, 
with  too  great  frequency,  that  the  mark  is  surrounded  by 
other  marks  or  even  by  advertising  matter  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  sort  out  the  shipment. 

Marking  Small  Shipments. — In  shipping  small  pack- 
ages it  is  frequently  the  practice  to  tie  a  number  of  boxes 
together  by  iron  straps,  strips  of  wood  or  some  other 
material  and  then  to  mark  the  top  box,  but  this  is  most 
decidedly  ill-advised.     These  composite  shipments  fre- 


tL 


X 


V 


16  EXPORT  PACKING 

quently  come  apart,  and  of  a  lot  of  six  boxes  one  only 
may  have  the  mark  and  the  other  five  lack  any  sign  what- 
ever of  identification. 

Errors  also  frequently  take  place  in  the  numbering 
of  the  various  parts  of  a  shipment,  and  great  care  must 
be  observed  in  this  numbering.  Often  there  is  duplica- 
tion, and  in  at  least  one  country,  Salvador,  goods  bearing 
duplicate  numbers  are  considered  contraband  and  are 
liable  to  a  fine  of  25  per  cent  of  the  duties.  Incorrect 
marking  is  no  subject  of  levity  to  the  importer.  In  every 
instance  he  may  be  subject  to  fines  and  in  almost  all  in- 
stances he  will  be  subject  to  delay  in  the  receipt  of  his 
goods,  and  he  is  fortunate  if  he  does  not  lose  his  goods 
altogether. 

Stencil  not  Brush  Should  be  Used. — Marks  and  num- 
bers on  a  case  should  always  be  stenciled  and  never  put 
on  with  a  brush.  The  importance  of  this  recommenda- 
tion lies  in  the  fact  that  a  stenciled  mark  or  number  is 
well  made  and  legible,  whereas  the  average  brush  artist 
in  factory  or  packing  room  is  not  remarkable  for  the 
work  he  does.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  caution 
marks  on  a  case  are  of  no  value  if  they  are  not  in  the 
language  of  the  country  of  destination,  and  it  is  much 
better  to  keep  the  case  clean  than  to  cover  it  with  all 
sorts  of  useless  decoration.  The  same  applies  to  adver- 
tising matter,  for  not  only  does  this  in  many  instances 
conceal  the  important  marks  and  numbers,  but  it  also 
gives  a  very  valuable  guide  to  thieves  on  the  boat,  wharf, 
or  in  the  custom  house.  A  case  which  cries  to  the  world 
through  advertising  pasters  that  it  contains  good  things 
to  eat,  shoes,  or  articles  of  a  similar  kind,  does  not  have 
to  be  opened  by  the  pilferer  to  discover  the  character 
of  the  contents.  He  is  saved  all  this  preliminary  trouble 
and  can  proceed  to  go  to  work  without  the  least  delay. 

Where  to  Put  the  Marks. — If  possible,  a  case  should 
have  marks  on  all  four  sides,  top  and  bottom.  This  would 
not  be  a  waste  of  time,  either,  but  in  the  majority  of  in- 
stances this  is  not  possible.  When  it  cannot  be  done,  then 
put  the  marks  on  as  many  sides  of  the  package  as  possible 


TEE  PROBLEM  17 

and  be  careful  to  place  the  whole  of  the  mark  together 
instead  of  scattering  parts  of  it  all  over  the  side  of  the 
package.  The  marks  on  a  case  are  checked  by  the  dock 
employees;  the  customs  manifest  must  show  them,  and 
so  must  the  bill  of  lading,  and  it  may  be  necessary  to 
inspect  them  at  other  times.  The  value,  therefore,  of 
having  the  marks  grouped  compactly  so  that  they  can  be 
seen  at  a  glance  and  without  difficulty  is  obvious,  and  so  v/ 
doing  entails  no  more  work  than  putting  them  on  dif-  '^ 
ferent  parts  of  the  case.  There  is  one  last  thought,  and 
that  is,  do  not  use  second-hand  material  for  your  export 
packages.  The  saving  is  practically  nil  and  in  many 
instances  second-hand  cases  contain  old  numbers  and 
marks  of  various  kinds,  and  even  with  care  it  is  fre- 
quently impossible  to  obliterate  them  all.  Consequently 
by  using  this  class  of  material  we  are  not  only  saving 
little,  but  are  running  considerable  risk  of  trouble  of  all 
sorts  for  the  customer,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
as  a  rule  the  resistance  has  been  long  since  taken  out  of 
second-hand  stuff. 

Many  Factors  to  be  Considered. — There  are  a  number 
of  factors  to  be  considered  in  the  problem  of  packing, 
factors  which  in  a  sense  are  fundamental.  First  is  that 
of  methods  of  transportation.  Generally  it  may  be  stated 
that  domestic  packing  is  satisfactory  for  shipments  to  / 
Canada,  but  that  market  almost  exhausts  the  list.  The  a^ 
chief  danger  to  goods,  however,  comes  in  transhipment, 
and  wherever  goods  are  transhipped  it  may  be  taken  for 
granted  that  unless  the  packing  is  adequate  there  is  going 
to  be  trouble.  We  come  back  therefore  to  the  suggestion 
that  the  manufacturer  study  the  map  of  the  country  to 
which  his  goods  are  going,  and  thus  guard  against  what 
might  otherwise  be  termed  the  inevitable. 

Climatic  conditions  may  materially  aifect  the  char- 
acter of  the  package,  and  this  observation  affords  an- 
other opportunity  to  insist  upon  a  thorough  study  of       / 
geography.     Conditions  at  foreign  ports  may  be  quite      7— - 
unlike  port  conditions  in  the  home  country  and  should 
receive  study.    These  questions  will  be  dealt  with  in  the 


18  EXPORT  PACKING 

following  pages  and  in  a  special  chapter.  Another  chap- 
ter, too,  will  deal  with  the  important  question  of  packing 
goods  so  as  to  minimize  import  customs  duties  in  foreign 
countries,  and  this  again  brings  us  to  the  point  of  packing 
according  to  customers'  instruction,  for  both  this,  and 
packing  to  facilitate  entry  through  the  custom-house, 
amount  to  the  same  thing:  consideration  of  the  custom- 
er's interests.  If  the  consignee  asks  that  machinery  be 
shipped  knocked  down  and  in  compact  form,  it  is  because 
there  is  some  condition  of  transportation  or  other  im- 
portant consideration  that  has  to  be  met.  If  the  con- 
signee asks  that  goods  be  sent  in  a  series  of  cases  and 
that  the  shipping  documents  show  what  part  of  the  mer- 
chandise is  contained  in  each  case,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
this  request  is  made  with  good  reason. 


CHAPTEE  II 

WHAT  EXPORT  MERCHANTS  SAY  ABOUT 
PACKING 

REPLIES  to  a  questionnaire  on  the  subject  of  ex- 
periences with  the  packing  of  American  goods  for 
export,  addressed  while  this  volume  was  in  prep- 
aration to  several  hundred  export  merchants,  shipping 
companies  and  foreign  freight  forwarders  in  this  country, 
that  is  to  say,  companies  and  firms  engaged  solely  and 
professionally  in  the  export  business,  resulted  in  scores 
of  replies  containing  much  food  for  reflection  along  with 
some  serious  criticism  which,  of  course,  was  to  be  ex- 
pected. An  examination  and  analysis  of  replies  received 
disclosed  not  a  few  valuable  hints  as  to  desirable  prac- 
tices, improvements  in  present  methods  and  advice  of 
real  constructive  value.  They  may  be  accepted  as  repre- 
sentative of  replies  which  would  have  been  received  from 
foreign  importers,  had  time  permitted  enquiries  of  them. 
It  is  believed  that  excerpts  from  some  of  these  letters  will 
be  found  of  interest  and  value  if  reprinted  at  this  point, 
so  far  as  the  letters  from  these  export  merchants  and 
others  are  couched  in  general  terms.  Other  excerpts 
have  been  used  elsewhere,  notably  in  chapters  referring 
to  proper  export  packing  of  certain  commodities,  when 
the  letters  related  specifically  to  such  stated  subjects. 

Exporters'  Comments  on  Packing  Practices 

The  Export  Packing  Department.— One  of  the  largest 
export  merchants  shipping  to  the  West  Coast  of  South 
America  declares  that  there  is  a  general  lack  of  geo- 
graphical knowledge  among  manufacturers  who  seek 
export  business.  This  merchant  believes  that  the 
average  manufacturer    is    not    conversant    even    with 

19 


20  EXPORT  PACKING 

the  location  of  the  principal  ports  and  cities,  or, 
if  it  happens  that  his  geographical  knowledge  ex- 
tends so  far,  then  he  does  not  understand  or  appreciate 
the  physical  conditions  governing  the  transportation  of 
goods.  This  merchant  therefore  urges  that  any  manu- 
facturer who  desires  to  have  his  goods  properly  packed 
for  export  must  organize  a  thoroughly  trained  packing 
staff,  which  must  in  the  first  place  be  taught  the  rudi- 
ments of  geography,  where  cities  and  ports  are  located, 
the  means  of  transportation  to  foreign  ports  and  of  in- 
terior transportation  in  country  of  destination,  and 
finally  educated  in  methods  of  packing  which  will  mini- 
mize so  far  as  possible  likelihood  of  damage  from  all 
causes. 

An  exporter  of  iron  and  steel  products  urges  that 
manufacturers  and  export  shippers  must  find  means  of 
impressing  upon  the  minds  of  their  packing  staff  the  con- 
ditions under  which  goods  are  handled  in  shipping  to 
various  destinations.  He  believes  that  even  a  visit  to 
steamship  docks  will  go  far  towards  showing  the  treat- 
ment to  which  cases  are  subjected  in  handling  from  truck 
or  lighter  or  railway  car  to  the  steamer.  The  packer 
must  know  whether  goods  find  their  way  to  ultimate  des- 
tination by  muleback,  or  by  what  other  means  of  trans- 
portation, and  must  be  taught  that  packages  are  handled 
by  manual  labor  at  many  foreign  ports  and  at  others  dis- 
charged from  steamer  to  lighter  or  surf  boat  and  then 
re-handled. 

Another  large  export  house  shipping  to  the  West 
Coast  of  South  America  urges  that  manufacturers  be 
impressed  with  the  fact  that  before  dispatching  ship- 
ments for  foreign  ports  information  should  be  secured 
as  to  shipping  conditions,  both  in  relation  to  the  handling 
of  the  goods  by  the  steamship  companies  and  as  to  dis- 
charging conditions  at  port  of  destination.  This  house 
points  out  that  shipments  to  major  ports  of  Chile  and 
Peru  can  be  easily  forwarded  from  New  York  on  steamers 
sailing  directly  to  such  ports,  whereas,  if  such  shipments 
are  forwarded  by  steamer  to   Panama,   transhipment 


Courtesy  of  General  Electric  Co. 
(5)     Completed  Case  for  Stator  Element. 
Note  marking  on  case  tohere  aling  cables  should  be  applied. 


Courtesy  oj  General  Electric  Co. 
(6)     Crating  the  Yoke  of  a  Converter. 
Note  that  bracing  provides  protection  if  crate  is  thrown  on  aide  or  end. 

21 


Courtesy  of  General  Electric  Co. 
(7)     Completed  Crate  Containing  Yoke. 
Crate  affords  a  visual  survey  of  cofitents  and  provides  reasonable  protection 
for  semi-fragile  material  not  subject  to  pilfering. 


Courtesy  of  General  Electric  Co. 
(8)     Packing  of  25  HP  Motor. 

Shmcs  method  of  guarding  against  shifting  of  machinery  in  case.  Note 
blocking  to  prevent  side  strain  and  blocking  of  shaft  at  ends.  Note  also  bracing 
of  top  of  motor  frame. 

22 


WHAT  EXPORT  MERCHANTS  SAY  23 

of  a  strenuous  character  is  necessitated,  entailing  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  extra  handling  which  never  con- 
tributes to  the  improvement  of  export  packages  when 
arriving  at  destination.  This  house  further  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  a  method  of  packing  which  might 
be  entirely  satisfactory  for  one  market,  might  be  just  as 
unsatisfactory  for  another  market  and  that,  therefore, 
manufacturers  must  so  standardize  their  export  packing 
as  to  make  it  suitable  for  the  most  trjdng  conditions. 

The  New  York  office  of  one  of  the  largest  importing 
houses  in  South  America,  places  the  blame  for  poor  ex- 
port packing  not  on  the  lack  of  intelligence  among  manu- 
facturers but  on  pure  lack  of  attention  and  consideration. 
This  office  states  that  a  common  reply  from  manufac- 
turers who  have  been  asked  to  supply  special  packing 
for  export  is,  that  the  manufacturer  does  not  see  why 
packing  that  is  good  enough  for  goods  shipped  to  Brook- 
lyn should  not  also  be  good  enough  for  goods  intended 
for  Constantinople,  and  that  it  is  quite  impossible  to 
upset  the  regular  packing  routine  of  the  factory.  When, 
as  not  infrequently  happens,  complaint  is  received  about 
the  condition  of  goods  on  arrival  at  destination,  manufac- 
turers almost  always  place  the  blame  on  the  transporta- 
tion companies. 

A  New  Orleans  export  merchant  shipping  largely  to 
Central  America,  criticizes  the  men  employed  to  do  the 
packing  for  manufacturers,  who  have  not  sufficient  inter- 
est even  to  inquire  what  export  packing  means,  nor 
the  slightest  knowledge  of  the  correct  meaning  of  gross, 
legal  and  net  weights,  and,  furthermore,  know  nothing 
about  and  pay  less  attention  to  the  packing  of  cases  in 
such  a  way  as  to  reduce  the  import  duties  in  certain  parts 
of  Latin  America,  where  such  duties  are  levied  on  gross 
weight;  and  no  importer  in  those  countries  is  particu- 
larly delighted  at  having  to  pay  duties  on  heavy  lumber 
cases.  Per  contra,  this  exporter  declares  that  he  has 
received  goods  from  manufacturers  in  a  great  many  dif- 
ferent states,  ordered  for  export,  which  have  arrived 
packed  in  paper  cartons  or  veneer  board  crates,  a  ridicu- 


24  EXPORT  PACKING 

lous  proceeding  involving  repacking  and  considerable 
extra  expense.  The  engagement  of  intelligent  and  re- 
liable men  in  a  manufacturer's  export  packing  depart- 
ment, men  who  will  take  an  interest  in  their  work,  study 
carefully  every  angle  of  export  packing,  is  advised  as  a 
highly  profitable  investment. 

A  member  of  a  firm  in  Manila,  recently  visiting  New 
York,  declared  that  losses  incurred  by  Philippine  im- 
porters because  of  improper  packing  or  marking  of  pack- 
ages are  insignificant  in  the  case  of  goods  shipped  from 
England,  and  formerly  from  Germany,  as  compared  with 
the  immense  loss  sustained  on  shipments  from  the  United 
States  because,  in  his  opinion,  European  shippers  realize 
better  than  American  shippers  that  Manila  is  more  than 
10,000  miles  distant. 

Fear  Cost  of  Export  Packing.— The  same  Manila 
merchant  referred  to  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  declares 
that  importers  will  gladly  pay  extra  for  goods  which  they 
know  will  arrive  in  perfect  condition.  It  would  appear 
that  there  is  a  great  deal  too  much  diffidence  among 
American  manufacturers,  in  general,  in  regard  to  making 
sufficiently  liberal  quotations  to  cover  the  additional  cost 
of  special  packing  and  protection  for  export  shipments 
when  there  is  extra  expense  on  this  score.  This  is  illus- 
trated in  a  letter  from  a  prominent  exporter  to  India  and 
the  Orient  in  general.  He  is  of  the  opinion  that  while 
American  manufacturers  have  adopted  a  distinctly  better 
policy  than  their  English  and  some  other  European  com- 
petitors, in  quoting  prices  which  include  all  packing 
charges,  instead  of  quoting  ''packing  extra,''  yet  the 
force  of  competition  here  in  the  United  States  has  led 
manufacturers  to  cheapen  their  packing  in  order  to  reduce 
their  quotations  on  commodities.  The  result,  he  thinks, 
is  that  they  fancy  they  must  name  equally  as  low  prices 
for  export,  and  in  such  prices  they  consider  that  they 
have  not  a  sufficiently  large  margin  for  the  superior  ex- 
port packing  and  protection  which  perhaps  they  realize 
is  necessary.  The  result  is  that  in  .some  cases  the 
ordinary  domestic  packing  is  made  to  do  duty  for  export 


WHAT  EXPORT  MERCHANTS  SAY  25 

shipping,  quite  too  often  with  disastrous  results.  It 
would  be  much  better,  this  exporter  advises,  if  manufac- 
turers would  frankly  advance  their  prices  and  make  them 
to  cQver  thoroughly  good  export  packing.  This  he  thinks 
would  be  better  even  if  a  domestic  price  list  is  used,  which 
may  be  modified  to  rea(J  to  the  following  effect :  *  *  5  per 
cent,  additional  charged  on  all  export  shipments  to  cover 
increased  expense  for  especially  careful  and  thorough 
boxing  and  protection.*'  In  any  event,  proper  export 
packing  must  be  supplied  and,  if  it  costs  extra,  customers 
may  easily  be  persuaded  of  the  desirability  of  paying  the 
extra  charge  in  order  that  the  merchandise  on  arrival 
will  be  intact  and  in  saleable  condition. 

The  same  subject  is  referred  to  by  a  firm  of  large 
shippers  to  China  and  Japan,  which  states  that  it  never 
has  any  trouble  about  packing  with  large  manufacturers 
of  experience  in  exporting,  but  its  troubles  invariably  lie 
with  small  manufacturers  or  those  who  have  never  done 
any  export  business,  who  too  often  underestimate  the  cost 
of  proper  packing  and  therefore  use  skeleton  crates 
when  solid  boxes  ought  to  be  employed,  or  use  lumber  too 
light  to  hold  the  w^eight  of  the  contents,  or  cases  that  are 
badly  designed  without  corner  posts  or  diagonal  bracing. 

Extra  Costs  Versus  Economies  Effected. — A  company 
engaged  in  exporting  to  Australasia  calls  attention  to 
the  desirability  of  making  a  careful  comparison  as  to  the 
expense  of  unusual,  very  heavy  or  very  costly  packing 
with  the  possible  losses  which  may  be  incurred  in  shipping 
in  less  costly  packages.  This  company  urges  caution  in 
making  such  a  comparison  and  above  all  in  adopting  any 
doubtful  practices  without  a  thorough  preliminary  and 
mutual  understanding  with  customers.  None  the  less,  it 
is  believed  by  this  company  that  in  some  instances  it  may 
be  discovered  that  losses  through  frail  or  very  cheap 
packing  may  not  exceed  1  per  cent  on  the  value  of  the 
contents,  whereas,  what  might  be  considered  substantial 
and  worthy  packing  cases  might  cost  2  per  cent  or  3  per 
cent  on  the  value.  This,  of  course,  can  only  be  deter- 
mined in  actual  and  long  continued  practice.    No  manu- 


26  EXPORT  PACKING 

facturer  must  jump  at  conclusions  and  attempt  any  pack- 
ing which  he  is  not  absolutely  sure  will  meet  the  approval 
of  his  customer.  Similarly,  this  company  declares,  a 
comparison  of  the  cost  of  bales  versus  cases,  or  cost  of 
barrels  versus  shipping  goods  naked — all  as  compared 
with  probable  losses  from  damage  on  arrival  at  foreig-n 
port — should  be  very  carefully  and  scientifically  studied. 

A  steel  exporter  suggests  that  excess  of  zeal  for  sub- 
stantial packages  should  be  restrained  by  the  knowledge 
that  on  bulky  goods,  which  are  freighted  at  rates  per 
cubic  foot,  an  inch  or  two  of  extra  dimension  costs  the 
freight  rate  on  another  cubic  foot  of  space,  so  that  in 
packing  such  goods  it  is  necessary  to  study  economy  of 
space  by  cutting  down  so  far  as  can  safely  be  done  on  the 
extreme  outside  dimensions,  which  may  be  considerably 
increased  by  unnecessarily  heavy  scantling  or  bracing. 

Merchants  shipping  to  Latin  America  observe  that 
some  manufacturers  reenforce  their  cases  by  wooden 
cleats  on  all  the  edges.  These  merchants  frequently  find 
that  not  only  do  these  cleats  not  render  the  cases  suf- 
ficiently strong,  but  that  this  method  of  reenforcement 
makes  necessary  an  additional  ocean  freight  charge  when- 
ever rates  are  figured  on  the  measurement  basis. 

Another  firm  of  exporters  to  Australia  urges  the  pack- 
ing of  cases  to  economize  space  so  far  as  possible,  because 
of  the  reduction  thus  secured  in  ocean  freights  and  the 
increased  profit  and  satisfaction  thus  obtained  by  the 
importer.  The  warning  is  given,  however,  that  at  the 
same  time  all  due  care  must  be  exercised  to  see  that 
goods  are  packed  so  as  to  insure  arrival  in  satisfactory 
condition,  which  is  the  essential  thing  in  all  export  trade 
and  must  be  accomplished  even  when  additional  cubic 
measurement  entails  extra  expense. 

The  American  purchasing  agent  for  a  number  of 
important  enterprises  in  Central  America  declares  that 
in  spite  of  specific  instructions  which  he  has  issued  as  to 
the  packing  of  certain  goods,  some  manufacturers  have 
assumed  the  liberty  of  shipping  those  goods  without  any 
packing  whatever.     For  example,  heavy  steel  pulleys 


WHAT  EXPORT  MERCHANTS  SAY  27 

have  thus  been  shipped,  the  manufacturer  believing  them 
strong  enough  to  stand  the  journey  and  wishing  to  save 
the  expense  of  packing,  with  the  result,  however,  that  in 
a  good  many  cases  pulleys  and  other  material  thus 
shipped  have  arrived  in  perfectly  useless  condition. 

Packing  to  Satisfy  Customers. — The  satisfaction  of 
the  customer  is  obviously  the  first  principle  in  modem 
business,  yet  disregard  of  this  principle  in  the  case  of 
foreign  shipments  is  the  subject  for  innumerable  com- 
plaints among  the  letters  from  export  merchants,  ship- 
ping companies  and  freight  forwarders,  to  which  this 
chapter  is  devoted.  There  are  too  many  of  these  com- 
plaints to  warrant  reprinting  here,  but  the  fact  is  notable 
that  the  critics  attribute  the  difficulties  which  they  have 
expressed  not  to  any  lack  of  intelligence  among  manu- 
facturers, but  rather  to  forgetfulness  of  or  indifference 
to  the  fact,  that  the  customer  in  China  or  the  customer  in 
Chile  is  just  the  same  kind  of  a  customer  as  he  who  lives 
and  thrives  in  Indiana.  The  safe  and  sound  arrival  of 
goods,  says  a  New  York  house  engaged  in  exporting  to 
South  Africa,  is  the  criterion  by  which  shall  be  judged 
the  future  success  of  a  manufacturer  in  the  South  African 
markets.  The  manufacturer  who  ships  out  goods  badly 
packed,  which  arrive  partly  lost  and  partly  damaged  be- 
cause insufficiently  protected  against  the  many  risks  of 
ocean  voyaging,  may  or  may  not  receive  a  repeat  order 
for  his  goods.  If  he  does  and  if  a  second  shipment  arrives 
in  similar  condition,  the  manufacturer  may  as  well  retire 
from  that  trade,  for  conservative  South  African  im- 
porters will  want  nothing  more  to  do  with  him.  Further- 
more, it  should  be  understood  that  safe  and  sound  arrival 
of  goods  may  very  often  mean  a  good  deal  more  than  the 
mere  arrival  intact  of  the  merchandise.  The  term  may 
also  involve  the  arrival  of  packages  or  cartons  in  clean 
and  presentable  condition  which  will  make  a  good  appear- 
ance on  the  shelves  of  dealers,  this  in  itself  helping  to 
dispose  of  the  goods  and  increase  sales.  White  paper 
cartons  should  not  be  stowed  next  to  heavily  oiled  case 
lining  paper.    If  they  are,  the  cartons  will  inevitably  be 


28  EXPORT  PACKING 

stained  and  very  likely  so  unsightly  that  they  cannot  be 
displayed.  A  little  thought  as  to  the  natural  desires  and 
likes  of  the  retail  merchant,  ought  often  to  be  a  good 
guide  to  the  manufacturer  in  determining  how  he  must 
pack  his  goods  so  that  they  will  arrive  in  the  retailer ^s 
shop  in  condition  to  please  him,  sell  the  more  readily  and 
induce  more  frequent  repeat  orders. 

An  exporter  dealing  with  Latin  America  emphasizes 
the  same  point  and  urges  the  desirability  of  always  con- 
sulting customers,  very  especially  in  Central  and  South 
America,  as  to  the  special  packing  which  those  customers 
may  desire.  This  exporter  is  of  the  opinion  that  manu- 
facturers should  do  this  when  they  quote  prices  and  urge 
orders.  The  prospective  customer  should  be  asked  to 
give  definite  instructions  as  to  just  what  style  of  packing 
will  best  suit  him,  and  the  manufacturer  may  make  a 
strong  selling  point  in  so  doing  because  he  may  thus  con- 
vince his  prospective  customer  that  the  latter  is  quite 
sure  to  receive  his  goods  just  as  he  wants  them.  More- 
over, the  manufacturer  should  always  fully  understand 
that  his  customer  knows  what  he  wants,  and  the  customer 
should  be  informed  that  if  all  goods  of  a  certain  class  have 
to  be  packed  together  and  all  goods  of  another  class 
packed  separately,  this  can  only  be  done  when  precise 
instructions  have  been  received  by  the  manufacturer,  and 
in  the  absence  of  such  instructions  the  manufacturer  can 
do  no  more  than  use  his  judgment  based  on  whatever  in- 
formation he  may  be  able  to  secure  in  this  country.  Co- 
operation with  the  customer  in  this  respect  is  advocated 
by  this  exporter  as  tending  to  the  better  satisfaction  of 
the  customer  and  the  increase  in  trade,  also  as  one  of 
the  strongest  and  most  effective  sales  arguments  which 
the  manufacturer  can  use. 

Advantages  Secured  Through  Good  Packing. — Ad- 
vantages in  ocean  freight  rates  inay  sometimes,  although 
perhaps  not  frequently,  be  secured  when  export  cases  are 
of  the  highest  type  possible.  Thus,  a  San  Francisco  house 
exporting  largely  canned  goods  and  dried  fruits  declares 
that  some  steamship  lines  allow  a  better  freight  rate  on 


WHAT  EXPORT  MERCHANTS  SAY  29 

boxes  that  are  strapped  than  on  those  which  are  not 
strapped,  the  rate  to  England  on  canned  goods  being 
$1.75  strapped  and  $1.80  not  strapped. 

Other  advantages  in  the  matter  of  reducing  freight 
charges  through  intelligent  ways  of  packing  goods  in- 
clude not  only  packing  to  reduce  the  cubic  measurements, 
to  which  letters  already  quoted  have  referred,  but  the 
following  hint  from  an  export  house  doing  business  in 
Europe.  A  great  saving  in  freight  charges,  it  is  pointed 
out  by  this  house,  can  be  effected  by  manufacturers  by  an 
endeavor,  unless  other  considerations  prevent,  to  pack  the 
containers  in  such  a  manner  that  they  will  be  accepted 
by  ocean  carriers  on  a  weight  basis.  In  other  words,  to 
pack  if  possible  more  than  56  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot. 
This  can  be  done  in  the  case  of  iron  pipe  fittings,  for  ex- 
ample, by  avoiding  the  packing  of  large  sizes  only  in  a 
barrel  and  including  in  the  same  barrel  the  smaller  fit- 
tings placed  inside  of  the  larger  ones,  thus  reducing  the 
total  measurement  of  the  shipment. 

Again,  one  of  the  principal  New  York  exporters  ship- 
ping to  the  West  Coast  of  South  America,  points  out  the 
neglect  of  some  manufacturers  to  utilize  all  packing 
space,  and  writes  of  a  shipment  in  which  automobile  tires 
were  dispatched  packed  in  cases,  the  entire  hole  of  the 
^' doughnut,^'  within  the  tire,  being  left  quite  empty  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  on  the  same  order  there  was  a 
quantity  of  small  sundry  items  which  could  readily  have 
been  packed  in  this  empty  space.  The  result  was  heavily 
increased  freight  charges,  and  a  large  part  of  those 
charges  were  for  empty  space  only. 

A  foreign  freight  forwarder  declares  that  more  favor- 
able rates  of  marine  insurance,  and  especially  very  much 
lower  rates  for  insurance  against  pilfering,  can  be  secured 
when  strong  cases  instead  of  second-hand  cases  are  used, 
and  they  are  properly  strapped  and  sealed  in  such  a 
fashion  as  to  make  pilfering  extremely  difficult. 

A  firm  of  important  exporters  to  Australia  insists 
that  cases  be  lined  with  proper  waterproof  materials,  be- 
cause of  the  fact  that  insurance  companies  give  them  a 


30  EXPORT  PACKING 

reduction  in  premiums  on  policies  when  this  is  done. 

Another  large  New  York  house  shipping  to  South 
America  declares  that  New  York  underwriters  have  been 
paying  special  attention  to  American  packing  methods  in 
order  to  obtain  a  guide  as  to  fixing  future  rates  of  insur- 
ance against  pilferage  and  breakage.  Many  heavy  claims 
have  recently  been  paid,  and  some  insurance  companies 
feel  that  on  account  of  these  claims  shipments  in  any 
except  approved  packages  are  extra  hazardous.  This 
New  York  house  states  that  it  knows  that  these  claims 
are  almost  invariably  valid,  and  it  declares  that  the 
South  American  merchant  much  prefers  to  receive  his 
merchandise  in  good  condition  rather  than  be  forced  to 
depend  upon  claims  which  are  difficult  of  collection,  and 
the  best  of  all  ways  of  avoiding  claims  is  through  proper 
export  packing. 

Influence  of  Export  Merchants  on  Packing. — Doing 
export  business  through  the  average  export  concern, 
export  merchant  or  commission  house,  involves  consid- 
erations affecting  packing  similar,  in  general  nature,  to 
such  considerations  which  enter  into  the  problem  of  doing 
direct  business  with  and  making  direct  shipments  to  cus- 
tomers in  foreign  markets,  and  also  involves  certain 
special  considerations  to  which  sufficient  attention  is  not 
always  given  by  manufacturers.  In  principle,  all  export 
merchants  in  this  country  ought  to  inspect  cases  which 
are  received  from  manufacturers  for  shipment  to  the 
exporter's  foreign  customers,  and  determine  before  ship- 
ments are  loaded  on  board  vessel  whether,  at  least  from 
superficial  appearances,  the  cases,  barrels  or  what-not 
are  suitable  for  overseas  transportation  and  inland  trans- 
portation at  point  of  destination.  While  it  is  quite  prob- 
able that  export  merchants  do  not  thus  inspect  all  ship- 
ments sent  in  their  care  for  foreign  dispatch,  yet  their 
attention  is  sure  to  be  drawn  to  any  weak  or  frail  cases 
by  the  receiving  clerks  on  the  docks  of  ocean  steamers, 
who  may  either  refuse  to  accept  unsatisfactory  cases, 
may  advise  the  exporter  of  the  fact  that  cases  are  not 
suitable,  or  may  accept  them  and  endorse  the  bill  of 


"  Caurtesy  of  General  Electric  Co. 

(9)     Method  of  Packing  Welding  Machine. 
Machine  w  shipped  complete  with  top  mechanisms  leaving  considerable  empty 
apace.     Note  cribbing  supports  ensuring  against  collapse  of  box. 


v» 

1        >^!       ^                                   ' 

1    ¥fV 

r 
i-7MH) 

,:#«»! 


.NHT-7i:in 


Courtesy  of  General  Electric  Co. 
(10)     Completed  Case  for  Welding  Machine. 
Note  marking  in  English,  French  and  Spanish  and  arrow  indicating  top  of 


31 


Courtesy  of  Oeneral   Ehytric  Co. 

(11)     Method  of  Packing  Generator  Coils. 

Illustrates    use    of    shock    ahsorhing    materials    and    deviees.      Note  -bed    of 
excelsior  conforming  to  shape  of  coils. 


(12) 


Courtesy   of   General   Electric   Co. 

Boxing  of  Generator  Coils. 


Note  position  of  top  bracing,  making  each  case  thoroughly  rigid.  Note  also 
cushioning  and  separation  of  rotes  of  coils,  each  self-sustaining,  hy  timbers 
padded  with  heavy  felt. 


32 


WHAT  EXPORT  MERCHANTS  SAY  33 

lading  with  the  statement  that  certain  packages  are  in 
bad  condition  when  received.  The  latter  is  an  alterna- 
tive which  no  exporter  and  no  banker  handling  shipping 
docunients  is  pleased  to  have  happen.  Accordingly,  in 
such  instances  exporters  are  very  frequently  called  upon 
to  repack  goods  or  to  recooper  broken  or  weak  containers. 
So  doing  involves  expense.  No  manufacturer  can  de- 
pend upon  an  exporter  to  ensure  the  dispatch  of  the 
manufacturer's  goods  in  proper  condition.  It  is  the 
manufacturer's  duty  to  his  foreign  customers  and  to  his 
own  prestige  and  future  trade,  so  to  ship  his  goods  in  the 
first  instance  that  they  will  arrive  safely  in  the  best 
possible  condition.  The  exporter  is  not  a  buffer,  and  if 
expenses  for  recoopering,  etc.,  are  incurred,  it  is  very 
certain  that  they  will  be  charged  back  to  the  manufac- 
turers at  fault. 

Again,  the  foreign  customers  of  an  export  house  who 
receive  the  commodities  shipped  through  the  mediary  of 
the  export  house  in  question,  may  make  demands  for  dam- 
ages incurred  from  bad  packing,  about  which  the  ex- 
porter may  not  have  known  or  had  any  opportunity  of 
learning.  Such  claims  on  the  exporter  are  certain  to  be 
passed  back  to  the  manufacturer  from  whom  the  goods 
originally  came.  The  exporter  cannot  be  made  **the 
goaf  in  such  instances.  The  manufacturer  should  in 
the  first  place  have  supplied  goods  properly  packed. 

Further,  manufacturers  must  recognize  the  fact  that 
exporters  will  not,  when  they  can  avoid  doing  so,  give 
their  orders  to  those  suppliers  who  refuse  to  heed  specific 
instructions  given  them  regarding  packing,  or  who  uni- 
formly supply  merchandise  improperly  or  insecurely 
packed  for  foreign  shipment.  Exporters  will  give  pref- 
erence to  manufacturers  who  supply  the  necessary  and 
the  right  sort  of  packing,  and  who  follow  implicitly  the 
instructions  regarding  the  way  in  which  goods  should  be 
packed,  usually  printed  instructions,  which  the  exporter 
gives  with  his  orders.  All  of  these  features  are  brought 
out  in  the  letters  from  exporting  houses  which  are  now 
under  review. 


34  EXPORT  PACKING 

One  of  the  largest  houses  shipping  to  the  West  Coast 
of  South  America  complains  that  its  requests  for  special 
attention  to  export  packing  are  often  entirely  ignored. 
He  has  found  some  manufacturers,  however,  who  have 
been  acquainted  with  export  business  for  years  and  are 
therefore  familiar  with  its  requirements,  and  it  is  those 
houses  to  which  this  exporter  always  gives  business  by 
preference  instead  of  to  competitors. 

A  firm  doing  business  with  the  River  Plate  countries 
writes  that' it  has  printed  on  its  order  sheets  special  in- 
structions regarding  the  packing  required,  which  are 
printed  in  red  ink  to  ensure  their  receiving  proper  atten- 
tion, yet  in  spite  of  this  goods  are  continually  being  re- 
ceived in  old,  second-hand  and  recoopered  cases,  even 
though  the  instructions  on  their  order  blanks  include  a 
cut  of  a  proper  packing  case.  This  firm  also  complains 
that  manufacturers  are  very  often  delinquent  in  failing 
to  give  proper  gross  and  net  weights  of  their  cases,  and 
owing  to  manufacturers'  carelessness  in  this  respect  they 
have  been  fined  at  least  twenty-five  times  by  the  custom 
house  of  one  foreign  country;  and  that  manufacturers 
generally  ignore  any  claims  made  on  them  for  shortage, 
or  damage  on  account  of  bad  packing,  and  refuse  to  enter- 
tain claims  for  fines  which  have  been  incurred  through 
their  own  carelessness. 

A  firm  of  foreign  freight  forwarders  declares  that 
failure  to  provide  proper  packing  often  makes  it  neces- 
sary to  have  packages  recoopered  at  American  port  of 
shipment,  the  cost  of  so  doing  being  in  many  cases  greater 
than  would  have  been  the  cost  of  providing  suitable  pack- 
ages in  the  first  place.  Furthermore,  of  course,  only  the 
most  flagrant  cases  of  unsuitable  packing  appear  to  de- 
mand recoopering  before  shipments  leave  this  country, 
although  in  many  other  instances  shipments  go  for- 
ward when  the  bad  packing  is  not  obvious,  and  no  trouble 
is  suspected  until  goods  arrive  at  their  destination. 

A  house  which  ships  largely  to  the  "West  Indian  trade 
is  of  the  opinion  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  com- 
plaints which  reach  this  country  of  bad  packing  on  the 


WHAT  EXPORT  MERCHANTS  SAY  35 

part  of  American  manufacturers,  are  to  be  explained  by 
the  fact  that  many  manufacturers  know  nothing  about 
exporting,  while  others  skimp  on  their  packing  with  a 
view  to  lowering  the  price  of  their  goods.  This  house 
believes  that  exporters  will  have  to  leave  such  manufac- 
turers severely  alone,  and  deal  only  with  those  who  send 
forward  their  shipments  in  a  way  that  will  do  credit  to 
our  methods  and  our  desire  to  meet  fully  obligations  to 
foreign  customers. 

The  New  York  buyer  for  one  of  the  largest  importers 
in  South  America  says  that  he  has  endeavored  to  teach 
manufacturers  from  whom  he  buys  the  necessity  of  good 
packing,  and  the  fashion  in  which  merchandise  which  he 
purchases  must  be  packed,  but  that  the  attempt  has  been 
a  thankless  task.  Being  direct  buyers,  they  have  too 
often  found  that  after  they  have  paid  ocean  freights  and 
custom  house  import  duties  they  have  exported  so  much 
broken  merchandise,  and  the  manufacturer's  mind  is  a 
blank  when  he  is  approached  on  the  subject. 

A  San  Francisco  house  engaged  principally  in  the  ex- 
port of  dried  fruits,  suggests  that  all  export  shippers 
ought  to  agree  together  to  handle  only  goods  which  are 
packed  in  cases  of  the  right  description  and  strapped  at 
both  ends. 

Important  exporters  to  Australia  give  the  following 
as  an  illustration  of  the  expense  to  which  some  manufac- 
turers have  been  subjected  on  account  of  their  failure  to 
follow  instructions  regarding  packing  given  them  1^  ex- 
port houses.  Recently  a  Chicago  manufacturer  shipped 
a  lot  of  hardware  to  New  York  on  the  order  of  this  ex- 
porter, which  upon  arrival  here  was  picked  up  by  the 
truckman  and  delivered  to  the  steamship  pier.  There 
the  steamship  officials  rejected  the  shipment  because  pack- 
ages were  npt  suitable.  The  exporter's  representative 
went  to  the  pier  to  examine  them,  found  that  the  cases 
were  of  very  old  lumber,  evidently  used  several  times 
over,  because  there  were  numerous  indications  of  a 
variety  of  old  marks  which  had  been  partially  erased. 
The  exporters,  therefore,  had  to  entirely  repack  this 


36  EXPORT  PACKING 

shipment  in  new  cases  and  made  claim  on  the  shippers  for 
the  expense  incurred  for  labor,  cost  of  cases  and  addi- 
tional storage  and  cartage  charges.  The  suppliers  had 
not  followed  instructions  and  were  therefore  held  respon- 
sible. 

It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  export  merchants 
themselves  are  by  no  means  above  criticism  when  com- 
plaints are  made  of  the  bad  condition  in  which  American 
goods  shipped  by  them  have  been  received  in  foreign 
countries.  It  seems  certain  that  a  good  many  export 
houses  do  not  give  sufficient  care  and  attention  to  the 
fashion  in  which  the  goods  which  they  dispatch  have  been 
originally  packed,  and  their  condition  when  they  are  put 
on  board  vessel.  In  the  majority  of  instances  exporters 
know  nothing  at  all  about  the  cases  which  they  ship  unless 
they  are  in  such  a  very  bad  condition,  so  flagrantly  dam- 
aged, or  so  obviously  impossible,  that  receiving  clerks 
refuse  to  accept  them.  Yet  another  criticism  to  be  made 
of  exporters  is  offered  by  an  export  house  itself  which 
specializes  in  shipping  tin  plate  and  steel  products.  This 
house  remarks  that  in  many  instances  insufficient  export 
packing  is  the  fault  not  of  the  manufacturer  but  of  the 
exporter,  who  frequently  buys  goods  for  export  at  domes- 
tic prices,  in  packages  used  for  domestic  deliveries,  be- 
cause he  is  primarily  intent  on  quoting  lower  prices  than 
do  some  of  his  competitors,  and  is  unwilling,  therefore,  to 
pay  the  extra  cost  for  adequate  export  packages. 

A  large  general  export  house  shipping  to  all.  parts  of 
the  world,  complains  of  the  practices  of  manufacturers  in 
carelessly  numbering  and  marking  cases,  and  remarks 
that  ^^as  the  work  of  re-numbering  has  often  to  be  left 
to  the  intelligence  of  a  truckman,  errors  are  frequent  in 
invalidating  consular  invoices  and  resulting  in  fines  in 
foreign  custom  houses.''  This  may  be  characterized  as 
a  criticism  of  the  exporter  himself,  who  certainly  is  at 
fault  if  he  entrusts  the  rectification  of  errors  to  an  ordi- 
nary truckman.  If  fines  are  in  consequence  imposed,  the 
remedy  is  obvious,  namely,  the  supervision  of  export 
shipments  by  his  own  competent  employees. 


WHAT  EXPORT  MERCHANTS  SAY  37 

Merchants  shipping  to  Latin  America  contend  that 
manufacturers  do  not  give  sufficient-  attention  to  the 
strength  of  their  cases,  and  write  of  the  cargo  of  a  cer- 
tain steamship  which  went  aground  and  had  to  be  towed 
back  to  New  York,  where,  upon  discharge  of  the  cargo,  it 
was  found  that  most  of  the  cases  of  their  shipment  on 
board  the  steamer  in  question  were  broken,  which,  they 
write,  would  not  have  happened  if  cases  had  been  prop- 
erly constructed  and  iron  strapped.  A  critic,  however, 
is  quite  sure  to  demand  to  know  why  these  exporters  had 
ever  allowed  such  cases  to  go  on  board  the  steamer.  For 
the  sake  of  their  own  good  name  and  their  future  trade 
with  the  customers  to  whom  these  shipments  were  ad- 
dressed, the  exporters  themselves  ought  to  have  made 
certain  that  the  goods  which  they  forwarded  were  prop- 
erly packed.  This  is  always  done,  for  example,  by  the 
New  York  office  of  large  South  American  mining  in- 
terests, which  writes  that  it  has  a  special  inspector 
charged  with  examining  the  packing  of  all  goods  before 
they  leave  this  country.  In  this  instance  the  matter  is 
one  of  prime  personal  interest,  since  the  goods  are  for  the 
use  of  the  company  which  buys  them.  Perhaps  in  too 
many  instances  the  ordinary  exporter  has  not  the  same 
interest  in  his  foreign  clients  that  he  might  have  if  he 
himself  were  the  client.  In  others,  incompetent  labor  is 
employed. 

For  example,  an  illustration  of  the  latter  point  may  be 
found  in  a  letter  from  a  firm  of  foreign  freight  for- 
warders, which  tells  of  poor  packing  in  a  certain  instance 
where  several  hundred  cases  arrived  in  New  York,  every 
one  of  which  was  in  bad  condition  on  arrival ;  and  all  had 
to  be  recoopered  before  the  shipment  could  be  removed 
from  -warehouse,  and  even  then  the  nature  of  the  cases 
was  such  that  they  did  not  hold,  and  upon  being  delivered 
to  the  steamer  pier  by  truck  they  had  again  to  be  re- 
coopered  before  being  placed  on  board  the  vessel,  and 
finally  arrived  at  destination  in  very  bad  condition. 
Clearly  enough,  this  is  an  instance  of  pretty  poor  work 
on  the  part  of  the  carpenter  employed  by  the  forwarding 


38  EXPORT  PACKING 

house,  which  is  further  to  be  criticized  for  allowing  the 
goods  to  go  forward  at  all  unless  in  thoroughly  satis- 
factory condition. 

Specific  Eecommendations  of  Expokteks 

Export  Cases. — From  many  letters  received  from  ex- 
porters bearing  on  the  subject  of  the  kind  of  export  cases 
desirable,  the  following  may  be  selected.  A  firm  of  very 
large  shippers  to  China  and  Japan  writes  that  it  has 
found  that  there  is  a  point  where  a  package  is  heavy 
enough  to  test  the  limit  of  the  ordinary  man's  strength 
and  not  heavy  enough  to  warrant  using  two  men  or  em- 
ploying a  crane,  wheelbarrow  or  hand  truck,  with  the 
result  that,  while  such  a  case  can  perhaps  be  carried, 
when  it  comes  to  putting  it  down  it  is  dropped  because 
too  heavy  to  be  borne  in  the  stooping  position.  Breakage 
is  sure  to  result  if  contents  are  at  all  fragile,  and  to 
guard  against  this  it  is  preferable  that  the  supplier  put 
up  a  heavier  package  which  will  require  handling  by  two 
men  or  the  use  of  a  sling. 

An  exporter  who  is  chiefly  engaged  in  shipping  food- 
stuffs writes  that  in  his  experience,  because  cases  contain- 
ing canned  goods  in  tins,  jars  or  bottles  are  made  of  too 
light  timber,  at  least  12  per  cent  of  the  shipments  do  not 
reach  destination  in  saleable  condition. 

The  disastrous  effects  of  carrying  out  in  export  ship- 
ments experiments  which  have  been  made  in  domestic 
shipments,  are  related  by  an  exporter  in  connection  with 
a  shipment  of  insulated  copper  wire  which  came  to  his 
attention.  It  appears  that  the  manufacturer,  a  promi- 
nent concern,  tried  out  a  new  system  of  packing  for  the 
domestic  trade,  using  three-ply  veneer  wood  in  order  to 
effect  economies  in  cost,  and  met  with  success  here  at 
home.  Thereupon  they  tried  the  same  method  in  export 
shipments,  and  the  exporter  who  writes  of  this  example 
happened  to  be  personally  in  the  warehouse  of  one  of  the 
customers  in  Havana,  when  out  of  38  cases  27  arrived  in 
unusually  bad  condition,  in  one  instance  all  that  remained 


WHAT  EXPORT  MERCHANTS  SAY  39 

of  the  case  being  the  iron  straps.  Fortunately,  the  mer- 
chandise was  intact,  but  its  condition  was  not  improved 
by  the  exposure  to  which  it  had  been  subjected. 

Shippers  of  mining  machinery  and  supplies  to  South 
America  advise  that  their  rule  is  as  follows,  in  order  to 
decrease  as  far  as  possible  the  danger  of  loss  or  breakage 
of  material  due  to  the  lack  of  adequate  packing:  Boxes 
must  be  constructed  of  not  less  than  %-inch  lumber  or 
thicker,  according  to  size  and  weight  of  contents.  The 
ends  must  be  paneled,  made  of  double  thickness  lumber 
laid  crosswise,  wooden  battens  at  least  %  inch  by  3  inches 
pro\4ded  all  around  each  end,  with  substantial  strap  iron 
nailed  around  these  battens,  ends  lapping.  The  usual 
i/o  inch  by  No.  28  gauge  strapping  or  twisted  wire  being 
practically  useless,  they  insist  on  the  use  of  1  inch  by 
No.  18  gauge  strap  iron.  All  fragile  articles,  glassware, 
etc.,  must  be  carefully  packed  in  a  case  floated  within  a 
strong  outside  box,  with  a  liberal  quantity  of  cushioning 
material  between  inner  and  outer  boxes. 

Checking  and  Weighing. — The  prime  importance  of 
counting,  recounting,  checking,  rechecking  and  weighing 
goods  before  being  packed  is  insisted  upon  by  all  ex- 
perienced exporters.  The  manufacturer  must  be  abso- 
lutely certain  that  the  contents  of  each  case  are  exact  and 
identical,  in  count  and  weight,  as  well  as  description,  with 
the  articles  supposed  to  be  and  invoiced  as  contained  in 
the  case  in  question. 

A  New  Orleans  export  commission  house  dealing 
chiefly  with  Mexico  and  Central  America,  lays  particular 
stress  upon  the  necessity  for  careful  weighing  of  all  con- 
tents of  packages  as  well  as  the  entire  packages  them- 
selves after  packing  is  completed,  so  as  to  secure  correct 
net,  legal  and  gross  weights,  and  thus  avoid  fines  which 
may  be  imposed  on  customers  and  which  mean  not  only 
loss  of  money  and  great  annoyance  and  irritation  but  in 
many  instances  eventually  lead  to  loss  of  trade.  This 
loss  of  trade  will  originate  with  the  customer  who  has 
suffered  directly  from  improper  attention  to  these  de- 
tails, and  also  from  other  houses  in  the  same  market, 


40  EXPORT  PACKING 

whose  business  might  have  been  secured  through  the 
satisfaction  and  the  good  will  of  the  first  customer. 

Strapping  Cases— Protection  Against  Pilfering. — A 
well-known  export  house  in  the  Latin  American  trade 
writes  of  two  different  American  manufacturers  who 
were  accustomed  to  place  straps  around  cases  in  the  same 
direction  that  the  boards  of  the  cases  ran — thus  making 
the  straps  practically  of  no  value,  as  they,  of  course,  can 
only  hold  the  parts  over  which  they  are  nailed — in- 
stead of  reenforcing  the  entire  case  by  running  the  bands 
in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  boards.  The  iron  banding 
of  cases  serves,  of  course,  two  purposes.  First,  reen- 
forcing the  strength  of  a  package,  although  as  a  promi- 
nent firm  of  exporters  remarks,  it  is  quite  useless  to  hope 
to  strengthen  a  frail  package  with  hoop  iron,  as  boards 
in  many  such  cases  are  hardly  strong  enough  to  hold  the 
nails.  Banding  also  helps  materially  to  diminish  the 
risk  of  pilfering,  which  has  grown  seriously  in  recent 
years. 

A  firm  of  South  American  shippers  pbints  out  that 
pilferage  of  cases  containing  sundry  commodities  is 
almost  certain  to  occur  unless  cases  are  properly  reen- 
forced  so  that  they  cannot  easily  be  opened;  and,  since 
rates  for  insurance  against  pilferage  have  been  increased, 
many  shipments  do  not  carry  this  risk,  and  losses  in- 
curred are  not  encouragement  to  customers  to  continue 
trading.  Another  exporter  doing  business  largely  with 
Colombia  objects  to  the  practice  of  marking  the  contents 
of  packages  on  the  cases,  which  not  only  invites  pilfer- 
age but  instructs  thieves  just  where  they  can  obtain  the 
greatest  results  for  their  efforts.  If  all  cases  are  un- 
marked as  to  contents  doubtless  a  large  number  of 
cases  would  be  opened  by  thieves  in  course  of  transit,  but 
there  would  be  fewer  goods  missing  on  arrival  at  destina- 
tion, because  the  thieves  would  have  wasted  a  good  deal 
of  their  time  in  opening  packages  containing  goods  not 
easily  to  be  disposed  of  and  not  worth  pilfering. 

An  important  export  house  specializing  in  automo- 
bile accessories  submits  the  following  suggestion  received 


Courtesy  of  Oeneral  Electric  Co. 
(13)     Completed  Case  Containing  Coils. 


Courtesy  of  Oeneral  Electric  Co. 
(14)     Method  of  Packing  Switchboard. 
Switchboard  is  shipped  without  being  knocked  down.    Note  ''A"  frame  support 
and  cross  tie  to  prevent  stcitchboard  from  overturning. 

41 


42 


WHAT  EXPORT  MERCHANTS  SAY         43 

by  it  from  a  foreign  customer:  ** Pilfering  may  be  pre- 
vented by  strapping  the  cases  inside.  Such  a  strap  need 
not  be  continuous.  The  cover  also  must,  of  course,  be 
strapped  inside.  In  such  a  case  one  side  has  to  be  com- 
pletely destroyed  to  remove  a  board  because  the  pilferer 
cannot  abstract  one  board  only  and  replace  it  without 
detection.^' 

Another  firm  of  foreign  freight  forwarders  empha- 
sizes the  desirability  of  steel  sealing  straps,  drawn  tight 
by  machine  and  nailed  in  such  a  fashion  that  a  board  can- 
not be  removed  without  being  noticed.  This  especially 
in  the  case  of  shipments  of  shoes  and  leather.  Another 
firm  of  South  American  exporters  emphasizes  the  bad 
policy  of  using  advertising  matter  on  the  outside  of  cases ; 
this  is  an  aid  to  pilferers  who  are  thus  told  what  the 
contents  are.  Safety  seals  must  be  used,  as  by  ordinary 
strapping  pilferage  is  not  prevented,  since  straps  can 
simply  be  removed  and  put  back  again.  Pilferers,  this 
firm  remarks,  are  generally  found  in  the  holds  of  vessels 
or  on  the  docks  or  even  in  the  custom  houses  of  foreign 
countries,  and  must  not  be  encouraged  by  having  drawn 
to  their  attention  goods  which  may  profitably  be  stolen. 

A  large  steamship  company  maintaining  services  to 
the  West  Indies  and  Central  America,  refuses  to  accept 
for  transportation  shipments  of  boots  and  shoes,  cigars, 
etc.,  unless  cases  containing  such  goods  are  protected  by 
metal  straps  or  wires  secured  by  lead  seals  at  the  ends, 
or  **some  equally  effective  device.'' 

Tin  Case  Linings. — The  use  of  hermetically  sealed  tin 
linings  for  cases  is  advocated  by  some  exporters  as  the 
best  possible  protection  of  goods  most  easily  damaged  by 
moisture  or  sea  water  baths,  but  in  addition  to  this  com- 
monly urged  advantage  it  is  to  be  remembered,  says  a 
shipper  to  India,  that  such  tin  linings  are  of  very  great 
value  in  shipping  to  some  tropical  countries  as  a  protec- 
tion against  damage  by  insects.  The  objection  to  the  use 
of  tin  or  zinc  linings  is  naturally  the  very  great  cost  in- 
volved. On  this  score,  a  large  export  merchant  writes 
recommending  that  manufacturers  install  and  maintain 


44  EXPORT  PACKING 

their  own  tinning  department  and  not  **give  occasion  to 
the  next  door  tinner  to  blackmail  them." 

It  is  also  suggested  by  a  house  exporting  to  the  Orient 
that  if  manufacturers  fear  to  quote  prices  which  will  in- 
clude the  cost  of  tin  linings,  anticipating  that  such  quota- 
tions may  not  compare  favorably  in  the  minds  of  their 
foreign  customers  with  quotations  made  by  competing 
houses  which  do  not  include  tin-lined  cases,  in  such  in- 
stances manufacturers  may  easily  quote  in  two  different 
fashions :  First,  for  goods  to  be  packed  in  ordinary  water- 
proofing material,  and  on  this  score  they  may  assure  their 
foreign  customers  that  every  care  and  attention  will  be 
given  to  thoroughly  adequate  waterproofing ;  second,  they 
may  at  the  same  time  offer  to  pack  in  tin-lined  cases  which 
will  make  safe  arrival  absolutely  certain  at  such  and  such 
additional  costs,  giving  their  customers  their  choice  as  to 
how  they  want  their  goods  shipped. 

Marking  of  Cases. — Innumerable  letters  received  in 
reply  to  the  questionnaire  addressed  to  exporters  and 
shippers,  emphasize  strenuously  the  great  importance  of 
marking  and  numbering  export  cases. 

A  gentleman  from  the  Philippine  Islands  recently 
visiting  New  York,  protested  against  the  tremendous 
losses  incurred  on  this  score  by  importers  in  Manila, 
stating  that  at  the  time  he  left  Manila  there  was  mer- 
chandise in  the  unclaimed  warehouse  of  the  Manila  cus- 
tom house  valued  at  between  $25,000  and  $30,000,  which 
was  not  susceptible  of  identification,  as  regards  marks 
and  brands,  because  of  the  mutilation  or  destruction  of 
their  flimsy  containers  and  utter  indifference  of  the 
shipper  in  protecting  his  goods.  Bales  of  textiles  arrived 
entirely  stripped  of  covering  and  without  any  marks  to 
identify  them.  Heavy  iron  jacks,  weighing  between  90 
and  100  pounds  each,  were  shipped  in  a  flimsy  fibre  box 
which  on  arrival  was  in  shreds  and  could  not  be  identified. 
Railway  spikes  packed  in  a  flimsy  jute  sack,  and  casks 
containing  bolts  and  nuts  weighing  two  or  three  pounds 
each,  arrived  without  identifying  marks  because  the  con- 
tainers were  practically  destroyed.    Iron  building  bars 


WHAT  EXPORT  MERCHANTS  SAY         45 

arrived  without  the  slightest  evidence  of  packing  marks 
or  brands. 

A  large  New  York  firm  of  general  exporters  remarks 
that  every  export  merchant  specifies  on  his  orders  the 
shipping  marks  which  are  to  be  applied  to  the  containers, 
yet  this  firm  often  has  packages  arrive  inscribed  with 
their  New  York  address  and  the  manufacturer's  trade 
mark,  but  with  the  shipping  mark  and  numbers  of  the 
boxes,  if  they  appeared  at  all,  almost  invariably  tucked 
away  in  a  corner  or  on  a  paper  tag  attached  to  the  pack- 
age ;  although  this  shipping  mark  is  the  real  address  and 
identifies  the  shipment  in  the  foreign  port  where  the  New 
York  house  may  be  quite  unknown,  or  where  packages 
from  one  New  York  shipper  have  to  be  separated  and 
delivered  to  different  consignees.  This  firm  emphasizes 
the  importance  of  stenciling  the  shipping  mark  and  serial 
numbers  in  large  letters  on  the  package,  and  putting  the 
New  York  consignee's  address  on  a  small  tag.  The  same 
firm  recommends  that  shipments  to  the  same  consignee 
be  numbered  consecutively  from  one  shipment  to  the  next, 
that  is,  if  the  last  shipment  finishes  with  case  No.  1,000, 
the  next  will  begin  with  No.  1,001.  This  concern  has 
observed  that  the  majority  of  small  manufacturers  always 
begin  each  shipment  with  No.  1,  even  though  shipments 
may  be  made  only  a  day  or  two  apart  and  a  number  of 
them  may  go  forward  on  the  same  steamer,  in  which  case 
the  packages  have  to  be  re-numbered  consecutively  by 
the  New  York  concern.  It  has  known  instances  of  ten 
shipments  being  received,  all  bearing  the  same  mark  and 
each  shipment  numbered  from  1  up. 

Another  New  York  firm  urges  that  a  packing  list 
should  be  placed  inside  of  each  case,  showing  not  only  the 
contents  of  the  case  but  the  same  markings  as  those  which 
appear  on  the  outside  of  the  case.  This  is  a  protection 
when  the  case  markings  are  accidentally  removed  or 
blurred. 

The  American  purchasing  agent  for  a  large  South 
American  industrial  plant  protests  vigorously  against 
the  way  in  which  steel  material  has  been  shipped,  the 


46  EXPORT  PACKING 

address  and  mark  appearing  only  on  a  tag,  which  is  cer- 
tain to  be  pulled  off  by  the  handlers  in  loading  on  board 
vessel  or  in  unloading  at  port  of  discharge. 

A  foreign  freight  forwarder  in  New  York  urges  that 
all  marks  be  made  by  stencil,  and  declares  that  painting 
the  marks  on  with  a  brush  gives  occasion  for  a  great 
many  mistakes  in  customs  houses  at  foreign  ports,  be- 
cause many  such  marks  are  blurred  and  almost  obliter- 
ated before  port  of  destination  is  reached.  Hbwever,  a 
mark  put  on  with  a  stencil  must  be  properly  water- 
proofed. 

An  important  steamship  company  calls  attention  to 
its  printed  circular  of  instructions  regarding  marking 
which  reads:  **The  attention  of  shippers  is  especially 
called  to  the  fact  that  the  marking  and  packing  of  freight 
is  a  most  important  factor  in  the  export  trade,  and  in- 
structions from  consignees  as  well  as  regulations  of  the 
various  foreign  countries  should  be  strictly  observed,  as 
failure  to  do  so  invariably  results  in  fines,  delays  and 
annoyance  at  destination.  Packages  should  be  marked 
with  ink,  not  crayon  or  otherwise,  and  all  marks  must  be 
distinctly  legible.  Several  Latin  American  countries  re- 
quire that  all  marks  be  plainly  stenciled,  brush  or  other 
kind  of  marking  being  prohibited  by  law.  The  port  of 
destination  should  be  distinctly  marked  on  all  packages, 
and  in  order  to  prevent  goods  from  going  astray  ship- 
per's name  and  address  should  be  shown  on  each  package. 
Abbreviations  frequently  cause  confusion  and  delay.  If 
shipments  consist  of  more  than  one  package,  all  packages 
must  be  numbered  consecutively  in  addition  to  other 
marks,  and  gross  and  net  weights  clearly  shown  thereon, 
and  always  in  kilos  on  packages  destined  for  Latin  Ameri- 
can countries.  It  is  desired  to  impress  upon  shippers  the 
importance  of  having  numbers,  weights  and  other  marks 
shown  on  packages,  agree  in  every  particular  with  those 
indicated  in  bill  of  lading  and  consular  invoice,  where  the 
latter  document  is  required,  as  the  slightest  discrepancy 
causes  delay  and  complications  and  usually  results  in 


WHAT  EXPORT  MERCHANTS  SAY         47 

fines  and  heavy  expense  to  the  consignee,  as  well  as  pos- 
sible confiscation  of  the  property.'* 

A  merchant  house  shipping  to  Scandinavia  writes, 
that  too  many  American  manufacturers  consider  proper 
marks  as  a  matter  of  slight  importance.  Many  difficulties 
have  been  experienced  because  shipments  have  not  been 
properly  marked.  Intolerable  inconvenience  and  con- 
fusion are  caused  when  merchandise  arrives  and  marks 
have  become  obliterated  while  en  route. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES 
AND  BALES 

By  H.  N.  Knowlton  ^ 

Boxing  and  Packing  Specialist,  General  Electric 
Company 

TWO  Principal  Factors. — The  two  important  factors 
in  export  packing  are  adequate  protection  from 
loss  and  damage  and  minimum  cost.  Adequate 
protection  is  the  more  important  of  the  two,  as  the  de- 
livery of  the  goods  in  undamaged  condition  is  generally 
the  primary  reason  for  packing.  The  factor  of  cost  is 
important  because  the  keen  competition  in  export  trade, 
both  foreign  and  domestic,  makes  minimum  delivery 
costs  absolutely  necessary.  Packing  may  affect  ultimate 
delivery  costs  in  any  one  or  all  of  the  following  respects : 
cost  of  the  container  or  packing  materials ;  cost  of  labor 
in  packing ;  insurance  costs ;  freight  rates  both  ocean  and 
railroad;  storage  costs;  cartage  costs  and  import  duty. 
The  ideal  export  packing  is  that  which  will  deliver 
the  goods  to  the  foreign  customer  in  perfect  condition  at 
minimum  cost.  The  endeavor  of  many  American  ex- 
porters, however,  to  reduce  their  packing  costs  to  a  min- 
imum without  giving  enough  consideration  to  the  more 
important  factor  of  adequate  protection,  together  with 
a  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  hazards  of  loss  and  damage 
which  are  encountered  in  export  shipping,  are  the  prin- 
cipal causes  of  improper  packing  of  American  export 
goods. 

11910-1917,  Asst.  Engineer  in  Forest  Products,  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 
1917-1919,  Captain,  Ordnance  Dept.  U.  S.  A.,  in  charge  of  Packing  Serv- 
ice. 1919-1920,  Manager  Packing  Service  Dept.  Safepack  Mills,  Boston, 
"Mass.     1920,  Boxing  and  Packing  Specialist,  General  Electric  Company. 

48 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES    49 

Export  Versus  Domestic  Packing. — Export  packages 
must  of  necessity  be  more  securely  constructed  than  do- 
mestic because  the  conditions  of  export  shipment  are  so 
much  more  severe.  As  an  example,  a  shipment  to  the 
Andes  districts  of  South  America  first  moves  to  seaboard 
either  by  express  or  freight.  Upon  arrival  at  seaport  it 
may  be  carted  to  a  warehouse  and  stored  before  ship 
space  is  obtainable.  From  the  warehouse  it  is  handled 
to  the  dock  and  from  the  dock  into  the  ship  *s  hold,  prob- 
ably either  by  means  of  a  sling  or  a  net.  It  is  stowed 
away  in  hold  with  other  freight  and  possibly  with  heavy 
packages  on  top  of  it.  The  ship  encounters  rough 
weather  and  pitches  considerably,  causing  the  cargo  to 
shift  and  the  packages  to  weave  back  and  forth  loosen- 
ing the  nails  in  boxes  and  crates,  loosening  hoops  on  bar- 
rels and  driving  heavy  packages  against  weaker  ones. 
Upon  arrrival  at  port  the  shipment,  because  of  a  poor 
harbor,  must  possibly  be  discharged  into  lighters  in  a 
choppy  sea.  The  aim  is  to  lower  the  sling  load  of  pack- 
ages into  the  lighter  with  as  little  impact  as  possible, 
but  a  sudden  swell  raises  the  lighter  and  the  load  hits 
it  with  a  bang.  The  lighter  is  towed  to  the  dock  amid 
dashes  of  sea  spray  and  the  packages  discharged.  Pos- 
sibly there  is  a  lack  of  storage  space  and  they  are  left 
on  the  dock  in  the  rain  for  several  days,  where  they  are 
of  easy  access  to  pilferers.  They  are  then  handled  by 
freight  to  a  point  in  the  interior,  and  thence  loaded  on 
mules  for  a  several  days '  trip  to  final  destination.  Owing 
to  the  hazards  just  mentioned  packing  which  is  entirely 
satisfactory  for  domestic  shipment  may  be  and  generally 
is  entirely  unsatisfactory  for  export. 

To  pack  correctly  for  any  foreign  market  an  intimate 
knowledge  should  be  had  of  the  port  conditions,  transpor- 
tation facilities  and  climatic  conditions  of  the  country  of 
destination  as  these  all  have  a  vital  bearing  on  the  neces- 
sary protection  from  damage.  A  knowledge  of  the 
method  of  levying  import  duty  is  also  very  important,  as 
in  some  countries  the  duty  is  levied  on  the  gross  weight 
of  the  package  and  unnecessarily  heavy  containers  may 


50  EXPORT  PACKING 

make  the  import  duty  more  than  the  value  of  the  goods. 
During  the  past  few  years  extensive  tests  of  various 
containers  and  packing  materials  have  been  made,  par- 
ticularly by  the  Forest  Products  Laboratory  of  the 
United  States  Forest  Service.  The  qualities  of  various 
woods  have  been  exhaustively  studied  and  the  relation  of 
these  qualities  to  wooden  package  construction  has  been 
determined.  Nails  and  other  fastenings  used  in  wooden 
packages  have  been  investigated  and  rules  worked  out 
for  their  proper  use.  The  efficiency  and  limitations  of 
different  types  of  containers,  and  the  effect  on  their 
strength  of  the  character  of  the  contents  and  the  method 
of  packing  have  been  carefully  studied.  The  results  of 
these  tests  on  containers  and  packing  materials  have 
from  time  to  time  been  published  and  have  also  been 
embodied  in  various  specifications,  the  most  complete  of 
which  are  the  several  Packing  Specifications  of  the  War 
Department.  The  export  packing  instructions  which  fol- 
low are  based  largely  on  the  War  Department  specifica- 
tions, although  use  has  also  been  made  of  other  authori- 
tative data  on  the  subject. 

Box  Construction. — The  construction  of  wooden  boxes 
for  export  is  a  subject  which  demands  much  careful 
study.  The  type  of  box  selected,  the  species,  quality  and 
size  of  lumber  used,  the  method  of  nailing  and  joining 
the  parts  together,  the  method  of  strapping  and  the 
method  of  packing  the  contents  in  the  box  all  vitally  af- 
fect its  efficiency  and  serviceability. 

In  general,  except  for  light  boxes  such  as  canned  food 
boxes  and  similar  containers,  cleated  boxes  should  be 
used  for  export  service.  The  cleats  tie  the  box  end  to- 
gether, preventing  it  from  splitting  and  also  add  more 
nailing  surface  for  nailing  the  sides,  top  and  bottom  to 
the  ends.  They  also  stiffen  the  box  end  and  are  of  great 
value  in  resisting  the  thrust  which  occurs  when  the  box 
is  dropped  on  its  comer,  or  when  heavy  weights  are 
stored  on  top  of  it  as  is  often  the  case  in  the  hold  of  a 
ship.  It  is  also  much  more  difficult  to  pilfer  a  cleated 
box  than  one  without  cleats. 


51 


«3 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES    53 

The  particular  species  of  lumber  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  a  box  is  not  as  important  a  matter  as  has  often 
been  supposed.  The  ultimate  strength  of  a  box  is  much 
more  dependent  upon  the  quality  and  size  of  lumber  used 
and  the  method  of  nailing  and  strapping  than  upon  the 
species  used. 

The  quality  of  the  lumber  as  regards  seasoning  and 
defects  is  a  vital  factor.  Boxes  made  of  green  lumber 
lose  a  large  part  of  their  strength  upon  drying  out,  owing 
chiefly  to  the  loosening  of  the  nails  from  the  shrinking 
of  the  boards.  It  is  absolutely  essential  that  the  boards 
of  which  the  box  is  made  be  seasoned  down  to  general 
atmospheric  conditions,  or  to  from  12  to  18  per  cent 
moisture,  based  on  the  weight  of  the  wood  after  oven  dry- 
ing. Improper  seasoning  is  one  of  the  most  common 
faults  in  export  boxes  and  should  be  very  carefully 
guarded  against.  The  number  of  defects  in  the  box 
boards  such  as  knots,  knot  holes,  season  checks,  or  open- 
ings in  the  grain  caused  by  seasoning  and  decay  is  also 
a  matter  of  much  importance,  as  the  strength  of  the 
individual  boards  is  dependent  in  a  large  measure  on 
the  number,  size  and  position  of  such  defects.  Large 
knots,  especially  when  they  are  unsound  or  decayed  or 
loose,  and  large  knot  holes  decrease  the  strength  of  the 
piece,  particularly  when  they  are  near  the  middle  of  the 
board,  and  should  not  be  permitted  in  export  boxes. 
Large  checks  or  splits  should  not  be  admitted,  unless 
properly  reenforced  across  the  opening  with  corrugated 
fasteners,  and  decayed  or  rotten  lumber  should  also 
never  be  used.  No  defects  should  ever  be  permitted  in 
box  boards  which  interfere  with  the  proper  nailing  of  the 
box.  It  is  again  emphasized  that  the  severe  conditions  of 
export  shipping  demand  good  containers,  and  good  boxes 
cannot  be  made  of  green  lumber  or  lumber  of  poor 
quality. 

The  size  of  the  lumber  used  in  the  box  or  its  thickness 
and  width  is  of  much  importance,  as  this  affects  both 
the  cost  and  the  strength  of  the  container.  The  standard 
commercial  thicknesses  and  widths  should  wherever  pos- 


54  EXPORT  PACKING 

sible  be  adhered  to,  as  the  use  of  special  sizes  not  carried 
in  stock  by  lumber  dealers  or  box  factories  greatly  in- 
creases the  cost  of  the  box  and  in  most  instances  accom- 
plishes no  particular  purpose.  By  far  the  larger  part 
of  lumber  used  in  box  manufacture  ranges  in  width  from 
4"  to  6"  or  8"  although  widths  up  to  12"  are  sometimes 
available. 

Boxes  made  of  wide  boards  are  preferable  to  boxes 
made  of  narrow  boards,  as  they  are  more  rigid,  and  there 
is  not  the  danger  of  the  box  twisting  out  of  shape  by 
shearing  along  the  joints  between  boards  when  it  is 
dropped  on  a  corner  of  the  end.  Also  the  wider  the 
board,  the  less  it  will  be  weakened  by  a  defect  of  any 
particular  size.  As  a  rule  no  piece  of  less  than  2  1/2" 
face  width  should  be  used  in  any  part  except  the  cleats, 
since  pieces  narrower  than  this  cannot  be  properly  nailed 
with  two  nails  at  each  end,  as  adequate  nailing  requires. 
If  pieces  as  narrow  as  2  1/2"  face  width  are  used  their 
number  should  be  limited,  and  they  should  be  placed  in 
the  center  of  the  side,  top,  bottom  or  end.  The  partic- 
ular thickness  of  lumber  required  in  a  box  depends  upon 
the  size,  character  and  weight  of  the  contents,  so  it  is 
impossible  to  lay  down  a  definite  rule  in  this  respect.  The 
contents  of  some  boxes  are  strong  and  rigid  and  offer 
much  support  to  the  side,  top,  bottom  and  ends.  In  this 
case  the  element  of  damage  by  breaking  or  puncturing 
of  the  box  boards  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  less  thick- 
ness is  generally  required  than  where  the  contents  oifer 
little  or  no  support  and  the  box  is  dependent  solely  on 
its  rigidity  for  its  strength.  Boxes  of  excessive  size  must 
generally  be  of  thicker  material  than  small  boxes,  owing 
to  the  increased  danger  of  the  breaking  of  long  boards. 
Also  boxes  with  heavy  contents  must  usually  be  of  thicker 
material  than  boxes  with  light  contents.  Thinner  ma- 
terial may  be  used  in  boxes  if  they  are  made  of  hard- 
woods such  as  beech,  birch,  maple,  elm,  ash,  oak  or  gum 
because  of  the  greater  inherent  strength  and  greater  nail 
holding  power  of  the  hardwoods.  The  ideal  box  is  the 
box  which  is  of  balanced  construction,  or  in  which  each 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES    55 

part  is  just  strong  enough  to  balance  the  average 
strength  in  every  other  part.  The  particular  thickness 
of  material  necessary  to  give  both  this  balanced  construc- 
tion and  also  sufficient  strength  to  carry  the  contents 
safely  to  destination,  is  a  point  which  will  have  to  be 
carefully  worked  out  for  each  product. 

Nailing. — The  method  by  which  the  parts  of  a  box  are 
nailed  together  determines  in  a  large  measure  its  ulti- 
mate strength.  Often  the  addition  of  a  few  correctly 
placed  nails  will  increase  the  strength  over  100  per  cent. 
Improper  and  inadequate  nailing  are  two  of  the  most 
common  faults  in  export  boxes.  The  National  Associa- 
tion of  Box  Manufacturers  has  recently  issued  a  nailing 
schedule,  which  is  based  upon  years  of  tests  made  by  the 
United  States  Forest  Service  and  also  upon  years  of 
practical  experience.  Adherence  to  this  schedule  will 
insure  adequate  nailing  and  will  do  much  toward  improv- 
ing export  boxes.  The  principal  woods  used  in  boxes  are 
classed  into  four  groups  as  follows,  depending  chiefly 
upon  their  physical  and  mechanical  properties  with  re- 
spect to  the  way  they  receive  and  hold  nails,  and  with 
respect  to  their  strength : 

Group  Group 

Alpine  Fir I  Maple,  Hard IV 

Aspen I  Maple.  Soft  or  Silver Ill 

Balsam  Fir I  Noble  Fir I 

Basswood I  Norway  Pine I 

Beech IV  Oak IV 

Birch IV  Pumpkin  Ash III 

Black  Ash Ill  Red  Gum. Ill 

Black  Gum Ill  Redwood I 

Buckeye I  Rock  Elm IV 

Butternut I  So.  Yellow  Pine II 

Cedar I  Spruce I 

Chestnut I  Sugar  Pine I 

Cottonwood I  Sycamore Ill 

Cucumber I  Tupelo Ill 

Cypress I  Va.  and  Car.  Pine II 

Douglas  Fir II  Western  Yellow  Pine I 

Hackberry IV  White  Ash IV 

Hemlock II  White  Elm Ill 

Hickory IV  White  Fir I 

Jack  Pine I  White  Pine I 

Larch  (Tamarack) II  Willow I 

Lodgepole  Pine I  Yellow  Poplar I 

MagnoHa I 


56 


EXPORT  PACKING 


The  gauge  of  nails  to  be  used  is  determined  princi- 
pally by  the  thickness  and  species  of  the  wood  in  which 
the  points  of  the  nails  are  held  after  driving.  The 
schedule  which  follows  is  based  upon  standard  cement 
coated  box  nails. 


Use  cement  coated  nails 
of  gauge  indicated. 

Thickness  of  Ends  or  Cleats  to  which  Sides, 
Tops  and  Bottoms  are  nailed 

Thickness  of  Sides 
to  which  Top  and 
Bottom  are  nailed 

When  species  of  wood 
holding      points      of 
nails  is: 

or 
less 

lie" 

'A" 

%" 

H" 

A6 

or 

'%" 

Vs" 

•Less 
than 

'A" 
to 

to 

GROUP  I 

4d 
4d 
3d 
3d 

5d 
4d 
4d 
3d 

5d 
5d 
4d 
4d 

6d 
5d 
5d 
4d 

7d 
6d 
5d 
4d 

8d 
7d 
6d 
5d 

8d 
7d 
7d 
6d 

9d 
8d 
7d 
7d 

4d 
4d 
3d 
3d 

6d 
5d 
4d 
4d 

7d 

GROUP  II 

6d 

GROUP  III 

GROUP  IV 

5d 
5d 

^Only  in  exceptional 
than  }4''- 


is  side  nailing  recommended  when  the  thickness  of  sides  is  less 


In  export  boxes  the  spacing  of  the  nails  should  be 
closer  than  in  domestic  boxes,  owing  to  the  rougher  han- 
dling to  which  they  will  be  subjected.  In  nailing  side,  top 
and  bottom  to  ends  six  penny  nails  and  nails  smaller  than 
six  penny,  should  be  spaced  not  to  exceed  1  1/2''  apart 
when  driven  into  the  side  grain  of  the  box  end  and  not  to 
exceed  1  1/4"  apart  when  driven  into  the  end  grain  of 
the  end.  With  nails  larger  than  six  penny  the  spacing 
should  be  increased  one-fourth  inch  for  each  penny  over 
six.  In  nailing  top  and  bottom  to  sides,  the  nails  should 
be  spaced  six  inches  or  more  apart  when  the  nails  are  six 
penny  or  smaller,  increasing  the  spacing  V  for  each 
penny  over  six.  No  board  should  have  less  than  two  nails 
at  each  nailing  end,  and  on  edges  where  cleats  are  used 
the  nails  should  be  staggered  so  that  approximately  half 
of  them  are  driven  into  the  cleat  and  half  into  the  end. 
Nails  with  large  heads  should  be  used,  particularly  when 
the  sides,  top  and  bottom  are  of  thin  lumber  and  great 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  overdrive  nails.  No  nails 
should  be  driven  into  joints  between  boards. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES    57 

Cleats  on  box  ends  should  be  firmly  nailed  to  the  ends, 
with  nails  of  sufficient  length  to  pass  through  the  cleat 
and  through  the  end,  and  clinch  not  less  than  one-quarter 
of  an  inch.  Where  the  box  end  is  composed  of  more  than 
one  piece  each  piece  should  be  nailed  to  each  cleat  with 
not  less  than  two  nails.  The  number  of  nails  used  to  nail 
the  cleat  to  the  end  should  be  approximately  the  same  as 
the  number  used  to  nail  the  adjacent  side,  top  or  bottom 
to  the  cleat  and  end.  The  nails  should  be  evenly  stag- 
gered and  should  be  placed  as  near  the  edge  of  the  cleat 
as  possible  without  splitting  it. 

Strapping. — The  metal  strapping  of  export  boxes  is  a 
matter  of  the  utmost  importance.  All  export  boxes  no 
matter  what  their  size,  weight  or  destination  should  be 
metal  strapped,  as  properly  applied  strapping  greatly  in- 
creases their  strength  and  also  is  of  great  assistance  in 
preventing  pilfering.  There  are  a  number  of  different 
types  of  strapping  in  use,  the  principal  kinds  being  single 
wire,  twisted  wire  and  flat  steel  band,  applied  with  nails 
or  staples.  Wire  and  flat  band  strap  are  also  made  so 
that  they  can  be  applied  under  heavy  tension  without 
nails  or  staples,  by  the  use  of  patented  stretching  and 
sealing  devices.  Plain  flat  band  unannealed  steel  strap, 
coated  to  prevent  rust,  makes  an  excellent  binding  when 
properly  located  on  the  box  and  properly  stretched  and 
nailed.  In  most  instances  the  unannealed  strap  is  prefer- 
able to  the  annealed,  because  it  has  approximately  one- 
third  more  tensile  strength  and  is  not  so  likely  to  stretch 
or  to  tear  or  break.  The  thickness  and  width  of  strap  and 
the  number  of  straps  which  should  be  used  in  any  par- 
ticular case  depend  upon  the  size,  gross  weight,  shape 
and  construction  of  the  box  and  the  character  of  the  con- 
tents. Very  long  boxes  may  require  several  straps,  one 
at  each  end  and  one  or  more  equally  spaced  between  the 
end  straps.  Where  the  boards  on  the  top  and  bottom 
of  the  box  are  run  crossways  or  with  the  grain  parallel  to 
the  box  end,  the  box  should  be  strapped  two  ways :  i.  e. 
one  strap  around  each  end  parallel  to  the  ends  and  one 
strap  around  tl^e  box  on  each  side  parallel  to  the  sides. 


58  EXPORT  PACKING 

Boxes  of  large  size  or  heavy  gross  weight  require  a 
heavier,  stronger  strap  than  boxes  of  small  size  or  light 
gross  weight.  In  general  a  strap  1/2"  wide  by  .018"  in 
thickness  should  be  satisfactory  for  boxes  up  to  100  lbs. 
gross  weight,  w^hile  boxes  over  100  lbs.  gross  weight 
should  as  a  rule  have  a  stronger  strap — 5/8"  wide  by 
.020"  in  thickness,  or  3/4"  wide  by  .015"  in  thickness, 
having  a  tensile  strength  of  about  1,200  lbs.  These 
are  only  general  instructions  and  may  have  to  be 
deviated  from  in  particular  cases.  The  character  of  the 
contents  of  the  box  also  affects  the  size  and  number  of 
straps  necessary.  When  the  contents  are  of  very  high 
value,  or  where  because  of  the  nature  of  the  contents  it  is 
necessary  that  the  box  be  very  rigid,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  use  stronger  straps  and  to  place  a  number  of  different 
straps  on  the  box.  The  two  common  methods  of  locating 
the  strap  are  directly  over  the  box  ends  and  in  a  slight 
distance  from  the  end.  Nailless  strap  and  wire  are  al- 
ways applied  in  from  the  box  end,  being  drawn  to  heavy 
tension  by  the  use  of  a  stretching  device,  and  the  ends 
sealed  in  some  manner.  No  matter  at  what  point  the 
strapping  is  applied  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  it 
be  drawn  to  maximum  tightness  before  nailing.  Loosely 
applied  strap  loses  much  of  its  value  as  a  binding,  and 
the  shrinking  of  the  box  as  it  drys  out  will  make  it  loosen 
up  even  more,  causing  it  to  bulge  between  the  nails  and 
form  festoons  which  are  very  liable  to  catch  and  tear  on 
every  projection  which  the  box  encounters  in  handling. 
It  may  safely  be  said  that  improper  stretching  before 
nailing  causes  more  failure  of  strapping  from  breaking, 
tearing  or  pulling  off  the  box,  than  any  other  one  factor. 
The  strap  should  be  very  securely  nailed,  especially 
where  it  passes  over  the  corners  of  the  box  or  where  the 
side,  top  and  bottom  of  the  box  meet.  Between  the  box 
comers  it  should  be  nailed  at  frequent  intervals,  as  a 
rule  every  3  or  4  inches,  to  keep  it  tight  against  the  box 
surface  and  minimize  festooning.  It  is  also  a  good  plan 
with  nailless  strap  or  wire,-  to  fasten  it  with  nails  or 
staples  at  each  of  the  four  corners  to  prevent  it  from 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES    59 

slipping  off  when  the  box  shrinks  and  the  strap  loosens. 

Marking. — The  marking  of  a  package  with  shipping 
directions  and  other  necessary  information,  is  as  impor- 
tant as  the  packing  and  should  be  completely  and  care- 
fully done,  as  improper  marking  may  result  in  the  loss 
of  the  package  or  in  the  imposition  of  heavy  fines  in  the 
country  of  destination  because  the  markings  are  not  in 
accordance  with  the  country's  regulations. 

The  marks  on  the  package  should  agree  absolutely 
with  those  on  the  invoice  and  bill  of  lading.  Wherever 
possible  the  markings  should  be  stencilled  on  the  package 
with  black  waterproof  stencil  paint,  or  where  the  article 
or  package  is  of  a  dark  color,  with  white  paint.  Sten- 
cilled markings  are  preferred  to  hand  markings  because 
they  are  clearer  and  generally  occupy  less  space.  All 
characters  should  be  large  enough  so  that  they  are 
plainly  visible,  in  general  not  less  than  2"  high  and  larger 
on  packages  of  large  size.  As  a  rule  the  complete  mark- 
ings should  appear  on  two  faces  of  the  package.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  the  markings  are  dry  before  han- 
dling the  package. 

The  use  of  tags  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible 
because  they  are  very  liable  to  tear  off  or  become  defaced 
so  that  they  are  illegible.  Where,  because  of  the  nature 
of  the  package,  their  use  is  necessary,  they  should  be 
metal  and  should  be  firmly  wired  to  the  package.  Labels 
are  also  objectionable  because  they  are  liable  to  be  loos- 
ened by  moisture  or  become  defaced. 

The  name  of  the  consignee  and  the  destination  of  the 
package  with  its  routing  should  be  marked  in  the  most 
prominent  place  and  in  the  largest  letters,  preferably  in 
the  middle  of  the  face  of  the  package  as  these  markings 
are  the  most  important.  Other  required  markings  such 
as  the  gross  weight,  tare  weight,  net  weight,  cubic  dis- 
placement or  serial  numbers,  should  preferably  be  in  the 
corners  of  the  face  of  the  package. 

It  is  always  well  to  place  a  duplicate  set  of  markings 
inside  the  package  as  a  means  of  identifying  it,  should  by 
any  means  the  markings  on  the  outside  become  defaced. 


60  EXPORT  PACKING 

It  is  also  well  to  place  a  packing  list  inside,  enumerating 
the  kind  and  number  of  items  making  up  the  contents  as 
an  aid  in  tracing  loss.  Marks  such  as  ^^This  Side  Up'' 
or  ^'Handle  With  Care''  do  not  do  much  good  unless 
written  in  the  language  of  the  country  of  destination. 
Advertising  and  other  unrequired  marks  should  be 
omitted  as  much  as  possible,  because  the  presence  of  un- 
necessary markings  is  liable  to  cause  confusion  or  mis- 
takes in  interpreting  the  necessary  markings.  No  old 
markings  of  any  kind  should  ever  appear  on  packages. 

Care  in  Packing  and  Special  Protection. — The  method 
of  packing  the  contents  in  a  container  demands  as  care- 
ful attention  as  the  construction  of  the  container  itself. 
Frequently  the  container  is  adequately  constructed  and 
arrives  at  destination  in  good  condition,  but  the  contents 
are  damaged  because  they  were  improperly  packed. 

The  contents  of  the  package  should  be  very  firmly  and 
compactly  packed,  articles  of  irregular  shape  being 
nested  together  so  that  they  occupy  the  least  possible 
space.  Loose  packing  of  the  contents,  particularly  in 
boxes  and  crates,  may  also  seriously  affect  the  strength 
of  the  container,  since  with  the  jars  and  vibrations  of 
transportation  the  loose  articles  act  as  a  hammer  and 
loosen  the  nails  and  fastenings.  Machinery,  vehicles  and 
other  commodities  which  occupy  an  excess  of  space  when 
packed  assembled,  should  be  disassembled  before  packing. 

Articles  of  a  fragile  nature  should  be  separated  from 
each  other  and  from  the  container  with  partitions,  racks, 
braces  or  cushioning  material,  so  that  the  shocks  of  trans- 
portation will  be  absorbed  and  not  produce  breakage. 

Internal  Packing  Material. — Kegarding  the  use  of  in- 
ternal packing  material,  this  is  a  rather  difficult  subject 
to  treat,  as  the  packing  material  which  should  be  used 
depends  entirely  upon  the  contents  of  the  container.  Ex- 
celsior is  a  material  which  is  used  to  a  great  extent  for 
cushioning  purposes,  to  separate  breakable  articles  from 
each  other  and  from  the  walls  of  the  container.  Excelsior 
differs  considerably  in  its  cushioning  properties,  some 
excelsiors  being  much  more  springy  than  others.    Excel- 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES    61 

sior  is  well  suited  for  many  packing  purposes  where 
cushioning  material  is  needed,  but  there  are  also  places 
where  it  should  be  used  with  limitations.  Some  shippers 
of  aluminum-ware  claim  that  excelsior,  which  is  wet  or 
damp,  makes  a  bad  packing  material,  as  it  is  liable  to 
injure  the  aluminum  during  export  shipment.  For  pack- 
ing purposes  excelsior  should  always  be  dry,  that  is,  have 
approximately  the  same  moisture  content  as  the  air.  This 
is  especially  necessary  where  it  is  used  as  a  cushioning 
material  for  furniture  and  other  finished  wood  surfaces. 
Where  it  is  used  in  connection  with  a  highly  polished 
wood  surface,  the  wood  should  first  be  covered  with  a 
flannel  or  very  soft  material  so  that  the  excelsior  will  not 
produce  scratching.  Considerable  highly  polished  mahog- 
any furniture  is  often  damaged  by  placing  the  excelsior 
directly  on  the  furniture,  especially  if  it  is  somewhat 
damp. 

Crumpled  paper  is  considerably  used  for  a  cushioning 
material,  and  is  excellent  for  this  purpose.  Bogus  paper 
is  considerably  used  for  this  purpose  because  of  its  soft 
character  and  cheap  cost.  Straw  is  also  used  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  but  for  certain  purposes  the  straw  is 
objectionable  because  it  is  liable  to  break  up  easily  into 
small  pieces,  especially  if  old  straw  is  used.  Corrugated 
straw  boards  are  also  much  used,  especially  for  wraps 
around  bottles,  and  make  a  very  efficient  cushioning 
material.  Straw  board  is  also  used  for  partitions  be- 
tween bottles,  and  in  some  cases  makes  a  better  material 
than  wood  partitions,  because  it  has  more  resistance  than 
the  wood  and  does  not  break  off  the  way  the  wood  does. 
Hair  felt  is  often  used  as  a  cushioning  material  for  wrap- 
ping around  highly  finished  metal  surfaces,  to  prevent 
them  from  scratching,  and  also  to  form  a  cushioning 
material  to  minimize  the  shocks  and  jars  of  transporta- 
tion, especially  in  the  case  of  delicate  instruments. 
Wooden  partitions  and  wooden  cleats,  properly  placed 
in  a  box,  can  often  be  substituted  in  place  of  excelsior 
with  considerable  saving  of  space.  One  large  electrical 
concern  recently  substituted  such  partitions  and  cleats 


62  EXPORT  PACKING 

in  place  of  excelsior,  for  packing  insulators,  with  a  great 
saving  in  space  and  saving  in  cost  of  packing,  and  these 
cleats  offered  just  as  good  protection  as  the  excelsior. 
Cast-iron  articles  must  be  very  carefully  protected 
against  the  shocks  and  jars  of  transportation  or  they  are 
very  liable  to  be  broken.  Cast-iron  stoves  are  one  of  the 
most  difficult  articles  to  export,  because  of  the  fact  that 
they  break  very  easily  from  the  jars  of  shipment.  "Where 
several  cast-iron  articles  are  packed  in  the  same  con- 
tainer, they  should  be  separated  from  each  other  by  soft 
wood  cleats  and  should  be  protected  by  plenty  of  cushion- 
ing material. 

Waterproofing. — Protection  from  damage  by  water, 
moisture,  or  dampness  is  very  necessary  in  the  export 
shipment  of  many  kinds  of  goods.  The  package  may  be 
exposed  to  rain  in  loading  or  unloading  from  the  ship  or 
in  carting  across  the  city.  It  is  subjected  to  more  or  less 
dampness  in  the  ship's  hold.  Wet  packages  may  be  piled 
on  top  of  it  during  transportation  or  storage.  If  it  is 
unloaded  from  the  ship  into  lighters  it  may  receive 
drenching  dashes  of  sea  spray.  If  it  is  destined  for  a 
damp,  tropical  climate  it  may  encounter  torrential  rains 
and  excessively  humid  atmosphere. 

Machinery,  hardware,  vehicles,  furniture,  musical  in- 
struments, textiles,  clothing,  leather  and  leather  goods, 
books,  stationery,  certain  food  products  and  chemicals 
are  some  of  the  more  important  products  which  require 
waterproof  protection. 

Iron  and  steel  parts  subject  to  damage  by  rust  should 
be  coated  with  a  good  anti-rust  compound,  which  is  thick 
enough  under  ordinary  temperatures  to  adhere  well  and 
not  drop  off  or  rub  off.  It  should  contain  no  grit,  acid  or 
other  injurious  substance  and  should  be  of  such  a  char- 
acter that  it  can  be  removed  without  too  much  difficulty. 

Lining. — All  boxes  and  crates  containing  material 
subject  to  damage  by  water  or  moisture  should  be  lined 
with  a  thoroughly  waterproof  paper.  The  standard  case 
and  crate  lining  paper  used  by  the  War  Department  and 
also  by  many  different  industries,  is  a  duplex  waterproof 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES    63 

paper  made  of  two  30-lb.  sheets  of  No.  1  sulphate  kraft 
basis  24"  x  36" — 480  cemented  together  with  asphaltum. 
This  paper  is  absolutely  waterproof,  is  of  just  the  right 
strength  for  a  case  or  crate  lining  material  and  is  of  the 
right  weight  to  handle  well.  The  waterproof  coating  is 
between  the  two  sheets,  out  of  sight  and  out  of  touch, 
where  it  cannot  scrape  off.  The  paper  can  also  be  folded 
without  breaking  the  waterproof  coating,  which  is  an  im- 
portant requisite  in  a  case  or  crate  lining  paper.  Duplex 
papers  may  also  be  had  in  heavier  weights  where  extra 
strength  is  desired,  such  as  combinations  of  two  40,  two 
50  or  two  60-lb.  papers. 

Another  paper  which  is  much  used  where  it  is  desired 
to  wrap  the  article  itself  or  part  of  it,  is  a  paper  made  of 
one  sheet  of  sulphate  kraft  coated  with  asphaltum  and 
reenforced  with  cotton  cloth  of  various  mesh.  This  paper 
can  be  had  in  various  weights  from  a  30-lb.  to  an  80-lb. 
sheet,  and  reenforced  with  a  cotton  cloth  varying  from  8 
to  40  threads  to  the  inch  each  way.  Cloth  reenforced 
paper  is  much  used  in  places  where  strength  and  resist- 
ance to  tear  or  puncture  is  desired,  such  as  a  wrap  for 
parts  of  engines,  for  electrical  apparatus,  for  parts  of 
vehicles  and  for  bundles.  By  tying  the  paper  securely 
with  cord  and  asphalting  all  joints,  a  perfectly  watertight 
wrap  can  be  made  around  an  article  of  irregular  shape 
such  as  an  engine  part.  Cloth  reenforced  paper  is  also 
used  to  line  cases  and  crates,  where  the  nature  of  the  con- 
tents or  the  method  of  the  construction  of  the  package 
demands  a  paper  of  extra  strength. 

Other  waterproof  papers  much  used  are  a  kraft  paper 
coated  with  asphaltum  and  reenforced  with  burlap,  and 
a  paper  made  of  two  sheets  of  kraft  cemented  together 
with  asphaltum  and  reenforced  between  the  two  sheets 
with  parallel  cords.  The  burlap  reenforced  paper  is  much 
used  where  a  strictly  waterproof  paper  of  great  strength 
and  resistance  to  abrasion  is  required.  Because  of  their 
tensile  strength  and  resistance  to  tearing  across  the 
cords,  the  cord  reenforced  papers  are  much  used  in  nar- 
row widths  to  spirally  wrap  material  in  coils  or  rolls. 


64  EXPORT  PACKING 

Some  articles  which  are  very  hygroscopic  or  extremely 
liable  to  damage  by  water  or  humid  atmosphere,  are 
packed  in  metal  lined,  hermetically  sealed  containers. 

Crate  Construction. — A  wooden  crate  consists  of  a 
frame  with  or  without  bracing.  It  may  also  be  entirely 
closed  or  sheathed  over  similar  to  a  box.  Completely 
closed  crates  are  often  called  cases. 

The  construction  of  crates  has  not  been  standardized 
as  has  the  construction  of  boxes,  because  the  method  of 
their  construction  is  dependent  in  a  large  measure  on  the 
size,  shape  and  weight  of  the  article  which  is  being  crated. 
Crates  are,  from  the  nature  of  their  construction,  vitally 
dependent  upon  the  method  of  joining  and  fastening  the 
crate  members  together. 

For  articles  of  large  size  and  weight  crates  are  gen- 
erally more  economical  than  boxes,  because  the  box  will 
have  to  be  made  throughout  of  lumber  of  excessive  thick- 
ness to  give  the  required  strength,  while  in  the  crate  the 
required  strength  can  be  secured  in  the  frame  and  braces, 
which  can  be  covered  with  thin  sheathing  if  necessary. 

In  general  the  same  remarks  regarding  the  quality  of 
lumber  used  in  boxes  apply  also  to  crates.  In  the  crate 
frame  and  braces,  however,  it  is  very  important  that 
strictly  sound  first  quality  lumber  be  used,  free  from  any 
defects  which  impair  its  strength.  The  War  Department 
specifications  for  crating  limit  the  size  of  knots  in  frame 
and  braces  to  one-fourth  the  width  of  the  piece  in  which 
they  occur. 

As  in  the  case  of  boxes,  the  particular  species  of  lum- 
ber which  is  used  is  not  a  matter  of  as  much  importance 
as  that  the  lumber  be  of  proper  quality,  proper  thickness 
and  properly  joined  and  fastened  in  the  crate.  Prac- 
tically any  of  the  commercially  important  w^oods  will 
make  satisfactory  crates.  The  standard  commercial 
thicknesses  and  widths  should  be  adhered  to  wherever 
possible.  Except  in  the  case  of  small  light  crates,  the 
width  of  frame  members  or  braces  should  not  be  less  than 
three  inches,  as  it  is  difficult  to  properly  nail  or  bolt 
pieces  narrower  than  this.     The  sheathing  or  covering 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES    65 

material  should  not  be  less  than  2  1/2"  face  width.  The 
particular  thickness  of  lumber  to  be  used  in  the  frame  and 
braces  depends  upon  the  size,  weight  and  shape  of  the 
article  which  is  being  crated,  so  no  definite  instructions 
can  be  given  on  this  point.  When  hardwoods  such  as 
beech,  birch,  maple,  elm,  ash,  oak  or  gum  are  used  for 
frame  and  braces,  the  thickness  of  lumber  required  may 
roughly  be  25  per  cent  less  than  when  the  soft  woods  are- 
used,  owing  to  the  greater  inherent  strength  of  the  hard- 
woods and  their  greater  holding  power  for  fastenings. 
In  selecting  the  size  of  the  lumber  for  use  in  the  frame  and 
braces  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  crates,  especially 
those  of  large  size  carrying  heavy  weights,  are  subjected 
to  many  strains  in  handling  during  shipment,  and  from 
the  nature  of  crate  construction  the  individual  members, 
even  in  well  constructed,  well  braced  crates,  are  often 
required  to  bear  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  gross 
weight  of  the  package.  The  crate  should  be  so  con- 
structed and  the  size  of  the  frame  members  should  be 
such,  that  wherever  possible  the  package  will  ride  safely 
on  side,  top,  bottom  or  end. 

Bolting  and  Nailing. — The  method  of  nailing  or  bolt- 
ing the  members  of  a  crate  together  is  even  more  im- 
portant than  the  method  of  nailing  the  parts  of  a  box  to- 
gether. The  bolting  or  nailing  surface  in  crates  is  much 
smaller  than  in  boxes,  and  much  of  the  strength  of  the 
crate  depends  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  fastenings,  par- 
ticularly those  at  each  of  the  eight  corner  joints.  Both 
nails  and  bolts  are  used  as  fastenings,  the  nails  as  a  rule 
being  used  for  crates  of  thin  material — 2"  and  under. 
All  nails  of  size  20  penny  and  under  should  be  standard 
cement  coated  box  nails,  as  the  cement  coated  nails  have 
from  10  to  30  per  cent  more  holding  power,  and  because 
of  their  thinner  gauge  cause  less  splitting  in  driving.  In 
frames  and  frame  braces  the  length  of  the  nail  should  be 
not  less  than  twice  the  thickness  of  the  member  to  be 
nailed  on,  or  the  piece  through  which  the  nail  first  passes. 
Frames  and  braces  should  have  not  less  than  two  nails  in 
each  nailing  edge— -more  nails  being  used  in  the  wide 


66  EXPORT  PACKING 

pieces.  Where  the  piece  receiving  the  point  of  the  nails  is 
of  sufficient  thickness,  the  nails  through  frame  pieces  and 
braces  should  be  staggered.  Crossed  braces  should  have 
not  less  than  two  nails  driven  through  both  braces  where 
they  cross,  and  these  nails  should  be  clinched  where  pos- 
sible. The  nails  used  in  the  sheathing  or  covering  ma- 
terial should  generally  be  2  penny  larger  than  the  thick- 
ness of  the  sheathing  expressed  in  eighths  of  an  inch,  and 
the  nails  should  be  driven  in  a  staggered  row  where  pos- 
sible, approximately  2V2"  apart.  Where  bolts  are  used 
for  fastening  frame  pieces  and  braces  they  should  be  car- 
riage bolts  in  preference  to  machine  bolts.  Standard 
cut  washers  should  be  used  under  bolt  heads  and  nuts 
except  under  the  heads  of  carriage  bolts.  The  holes  for 
the  bolts  should  be  bored  to  the  same  diameter  as  the 
bolts  or  a  fraction  smaller.  In  frames  from  1  to  II/2"  in 
thickness  %"  bolts  should  be  used,  in  frames  up  to  3"  in 
thickness  %"  bolts,  and  in  frames  over  3"  in  thickness 
%"  bolts.  To  prevent  the  nuts  from  working  loose  the 
threads  below  the  nut  should  be  upset.  Not  less  than  two 
bolts  should  be  used  in  each  framing  edge,  and  the  bolts 
should  be  staggered  where  possible. 

Joining  and  Bracing. — Much  of  the  strength  and  ef- 
ficiency of  the  crate  depends  upon  the  way  the  members 
are  joined  together,  and  the  way  the  contents  are  braced 
in  the  crate.  Economy  of  space  should  always  be  in  mind 
in  crate  construction.  The  corner  joints  should  be  so 
made  and  the  braces  so  placed  that  the  displacement  of 
the  crate  is  as  small  as  possible.  The  ^*  Three  Way 
Corner''  joint  should  be  used  on  each  of  the  eight  corners 
wherever  possible,  as  this  joint  occupies  the  least  amount 
of  space — only  one  thickness  of  lumber  intervening  be- 
tween the  contents  and  the  outside  surface  of  the  crate. 
In  this  joint  the  three  frame  members  entering  into  it — 
the  side  member,  the  end  member  and  the  top  or  bottom 
member — are  joined  so  that  each  piece  is  held  by  nails 
or  bolts  driven  from  two  directions,  and  all  nailing,  if 
nails  are  used,  is  into  the  side  grain  of  the  wood,  which 
gives  maximum  holding  power.    (Diagram  1,  fig.  1,  page 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES    67 

68,  illustrates  the  most  efficient  and  most  used  type  of 
three  way  comer  joint.  Figures  2  and  3  illustrate  two 
more  of  the  seven  possible  joinings  of  the  three  members 
to  give  this  comer.) 

Large  crates  and  crates  with  heavy  contents  should 
always  be  diagonally  braced,  and  braces  should  be  placed 
so  that  they  are  as  near  a  45°  angle  as  possible.  Where 
the  panel  to  be  braced  is  long  compared  to  its  width  it 
may  be  necessary  to  use  one  or  more  cross  members  to 
bring  the  diagonal  braces  at  or  near  a  45°  angle. 

The  following  rule,  which  I  quote  from  a  pamphlet 
written  by  me,  and  published  by  the  Safepack  Mills,  in- 
dicates the  spacing  of  the  cross  members,  and  the  number 
of  panels  of  bracing:  ^'Divide  the  longer  dimension  of 
the  side  or  end  to  be  braced  by  the  shorter  dimension, 
then — 

(a)  If  the  result  is  less  than  IV2,  use  one  angular 
or  crossed  brace  (see  Diagram  2,  page  68), 
6-f-6  =  l. 

(b)  If  the  result  is  li/o  or  more  and  less  than  3, 
use  a  cross  member  and  two  angular  or 
crossed  braces  (see  Diagram  3,  page  69), 
8-^3.7=2.1.  Use  a  cross  member  and 
two  angular  braces  or  a  cross  member  and 
two  crossed  braces. 

(c)  If  the  result  is  3  or  greater,  use  a  number 
of  angular  or  cross  braces  equal  to  the  first 
figure  of  the  result  and  cross  members  to 
correspond,  thus  (see  Diagram  4,  page  70), 
14  -^-  3  =  4.6.  Use  four  crossed  braces  (or 
four  angular  braces)  and  three  cross 
members. 

*^  Braces  are  made  both  with  single  mitred  ends  and 
with  double  mitred  ends  (see  Diag.  2).  The  single  mitred 
end  brace  is  much  used  on  light  crates  of  thin  frame 
material.  In  the  single  mitred  end  brace,  most  of  the 
stress  in  the  brace  must  be  taken  by  the  fastenings  in  the 
end  because  the  surface  'ab'  (Diagram  2,  fig.  1)  has  no 
bearing  on  the  crate  frame.    In  the  double  mitred  end 


68 


EXPORT  PACKING 


brace,  the  end  is  so  cut  that  the  'toe'  of  the  brace  *bc' 
(Diagram  2,  fig.  2)  bears  against  the  upright  frame,  thus 
taking  some  of  the  stress  off  of  the  fastenings  in  the 
brace  and  transmitting  it  directly  to  the  frame.  In  the 
double  mitred  end  brace,  the  'heeP  of  the  brace  or  the 
distance  *ac'  (Diagram  2,  fig.  2)  should  be  cut  longer 
than  the  *toe'  'be'  as  shown,  so  as  to  afford  as  much 
nailing  or  bolting  surface  as  possible. 


tCJx' 


Fig.  2 


Fig.  S 


Fig.     1 
Courtegp  of  Safepack  Mills. 

Diagram  1 

*'When  crossed  braces  are  used  as  shown  on  Dia- 
gram, 2,  fig.  2,  it  is  necessary  to  place  a  fill  piece  'x*  of 
same  thickness  as  the  under  brace,  beneath  the  ends  of 
the  outside  brace  so  as  to  make  a  flush  nailing  or  bolting 
surface.  These  pieces  should  be  securely  nailed  to  the 
frame. 


OffAnyuUr  Braf  One.  Crossed  Brace 

Fig.    1  Fig.  2 

Courtesy  of  Baf epoch  Mills. 

Diagram  2 

''As  far  as  possible  the  combined  thickness  of  braces 
or  of  braces  and  sheathing,  should  not  exceed  the  thick- 
ness of  the  frame  members,  so  as  not  to  project  beyond 
the  crate  frame  and  increase  the  displacement  of  the 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES    69 

crate  (see  Diag.  5).  The  thickness  of  the  sheathing  ^S,' 
plus  the  thickness  of  the  braces  *B/  equals  the  thickness 
of  the  frame  member  *M.' 

*^When  sheathing  is  used,  diagonal  braces  are  often 
placed  outside  the  sheathing,  as  shown  on  Diag.  5,  in 
which  case  one  of  the  braces  is  usually  divided  when 
crossed  braces  are  used,  as  shown.** 


Ont  Cross  n*rrb*r  and   Tw  CrossttI  Bi^mf4 

Fig.  1 
8' 


0n4  Cross  Mtmbtfontl  Two  An^vlor  Brmcts 

Fig.  2 
OourteBp  of  Safepack  Mills. 

Diagram  3 

With  heavy  articles  the  skids,  or  horizontal  frame 
members  upon  which  the  load  rests,  should  be  at  least 
50  per  cent  thicker  than  the  other  frame  members,  the 
additional  thickness  preferably  being  in  a  separate  piece 
nailed  or  bolted  to  the  skids.  The  ends  of  the  skids 
should  always  be  chamfered  or  beveled. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  contents  of  the  crate  be 
firmly  anchored  to  the  skids  with  bolts  or  clamps,  and  also 
firmly  braced  against  lateral  or  longitudinal  movement. 
To  quote  again  from  the  pamphlet  mentioned : 

**  When  the  contents  has  base  holes  it  should  be  bolted 


70 


EXPORT  PACKING 


securely  to  the  skids  or  to  cross  members  in  turn  securely- 
bolted  to  the  skids.  Large  washers  should  be  used  under 
bolt  heads  and  under  nuts,  and  either  the  threads  on  the 
bolt  ends  should  be  upset  or  lock  nuts  should  be  used  to 
prevent  nuts  from  working  loose. 


Thrt*  Cross  litm^trj  »nM  Fp<i^  Crotst^  Braces 


Oourteap  of  Safepack  Mills. 


Diagram  4 


**When  the  contents  has  no  base  holes  it  should  be 
firmly  held  in  place  by  clamps  placed  at  each  end  or  side, 
fitted  snugly  to  the  load  and  held  in  place  by  one  or  more 
bolts  at  each  end.  The  clamps  should  be  full  width  or 
length  of  the  crate,  and  sufficiently  large  in  cross  section 
so  that  they  will  not  spring  when  the  bolts  are  drawn 
home.  Such  clamps  should  also  be  placed  on  the  side  of 
the  contents  to  prevent  laterial  movement. 


Courtesy  of  Safepack  Mills. 
Diagram  5 

**  Internal  wooden  cleats  or  braces  should,  as  far  as 
possible,  be  placed  so  that  the  thrust  will  be  taken  by  the 
end  grain  of  the  piece,  not  by  the  side  grain.  The  shrink- 
age of  wood  along  the  grain  is  practically  negligible, 
and  cleats  or  braces  placed  so  that  the  compression  stress 
is  against  the  end  grain,  as  shown  in  Diagram  6,  fig.  1, 
will  not  loosen  when  the  pieces  shrink  during  seasoning. 
When  cleats  or  braces  are  placed  so  that  the  compression 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES    71 

stress  is  against  the  side  grain  they  are  very  apt  to 
loosen,  as  shown  in  Diagram  6,  fig.  2,  especially  if  the 
wood  is  not  well  seasoned. 

**0n  crates  with  heavy  contents,  it  is  often  advisable 
to  use  additional  vertical  braces  at  the  corners.  These 
braces  support  the  horizontal  members  and  take  some  of 
the  stress  off  the  corner  fastenings.  Diag.  7  shows  such 
vertical  braces;  piece  ^X'  is  a  light  brace  and  piece  *Y' 
is  a  heavy  brace  used  where  extra  strong  support  is 
desired. 


Srtic* 


^¥W 


Article,   to  b* 
BroQtd 


\ 


Fig.  1 


Article  tob* 
Braced 


^(^ning  GtHMtiHj  tlihiiKtf^ 

Fio- 
Gourteay  oj  Safcpack  Mills. 

Diagram  6 

*  *  Vertical  center  braces  are  often  used  on  crates  with 
heavy  contents.  These  braces  are  usually  the  same  thick- 
ness as  the  vertical  end  members.  See  Diag.  8.  The  cross 
member  'CM'  and  the  scabbing  *S,*  Diagram  No.  9, 
serve  the  same  purpose  as  the  vertical  center  brace  in 
Diagram  8.  ^ 

*'In  crates  with  heavy  contents  it  is  often  necessary  to 
use  skid  beams  placed  crossways  on  top  of  the  skids  to 
support  the  load.  Also  the  shape  of  the  contents  often 
necessitates  the  use  of  skid  beams,  where  it  is  impossible 
to  bolt  or  anchor  directly  to  the  skids.  Such  members  are 
shown  in  Diag.  9,  marked  'SB.'  Enough  skid  beams 
should  be  used  to  distribute  the  load  as  evenly  as  pos- 
sible along  the  skid. 

''Scabbing  is  a  tie  piece  used  to  tie  two  crate  mem- 
bers together  to  keep  them  from  spreading.    Long  crates 


72 


EXPORT  PACKING 


should  have  scabbing  at  each  vertical  cross  member. 
Diag.  9  shows  scabbing  marked  '  S. '  The  scabbing  should 
be  placed  on  the  inside  of  the  members  tied  together,  and 
should  be  wide  enough  to  cover  the  heel  of  the  diagonal 
braces  as  shown.  When  it  is  not  possible,  because  of  the 
shape  of  the  contents  of  the  crate,  to  place  the  scabbing 
on  the  inside  of  the  members  which  it  ties  together,  and 
when  placing  it  on  the  outside  of  these  members  increases 
the  displacement  of  the  crate,  tie  rods  should  be  used  in 
place  of  scabbing.  These  tie  rods  should  be  run  from 
the  bottom  of  the  skid  through  and  engaging  the  top 
member.  It  is  often  necessary  to  use  scabbing  on  the 
crate  bottom  to  tie  the  skids  together  as  shown  in  Diag. 
10. 


"CP^ u^ 

Courtesy  of  SafepacJc  Milla. 
Diagram  7 


Diagram  8 


'*In  addition  to  diagonally  bracing  the  sides  and  ends 
of  a  crate,  it  is  often  advisable  to  brace  the  top  diagon- 
ally. Diagram  No.  11  shows  the  top  of  a  crate  with 
sheathing,  diagonal  crossed  braces  on  top  of  sheathing 
and  battens  *X'  below  sheathing  to  reenforce  it,  where 
extra  wide  spaces  occur.  Diag.  9  also  shows  diagonal 
braces  on  the  crate  top,  marked  *TB.'  '' 

On  heavy  crates  the  skids  should  be  slotted  for  the 
sling  cable  used  in  loading,  the  slots  being  far  enough 
apart  to  admit  of  proper  handling  and  so  located  that  the 
load  balances  properly.  Most  crates  should  be  metal- 
strapped,  particularly  at  the  comer  joints  and  over 
sheathing  when  it  is  used.  The  strapping  should  be  flat 
band  unannealed  steel,  coated  to  prevent  rust,  and  should 
be  very  tightly  stretched  and  nailed. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES    73 

Use  of  Screws  in  Boxes  and  Crates.— Regarding  the 
use  of  screws  in  boxes  and  crates,  this  is  often  advisable, 
especially  in  the  case  of  boxes  when  it  is  desired  to  use 
the  box  over  again,  and  in  crates  when  it  is  desired  to 


X 

Diagram  9 


1 


ScabUng 


Skid  Sprtatltr 


SkM 


4hi4 


Chamftrett  End 
Courtesy  of  Safcpack  MilU. 

Diagram  10 

make  the  crate  so  that  it  can  be  easily  gotten  into  for  the 
inspection  of  customs  officials,  without  tearing  the  boards 
all  to  pieces  in  getting  them  off.  We  will  first  take  up  the 
use  of  screws  in  boxes.  When  it  is  desired  to  get  into  a 
box  without  tearing  the  boards  to  pieces,  the  top  boards 
are  often  attached  to  the  sides  and  ends  and  to  the  cleats 


74 


EXPORT  PACKING 


with  screws  in  place  of  nails.  It  is  usually  necessary  to 
bore  the  first  board  through  which  the  screw  passes  to 
avoid  splitting  it,  and  the  diameter  of  the  hole  should  be 
equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  shank  of  the  screw.  When 
the  box  is  made  of  hardwood  it  is  usually  necessary  to 
drill  the  hole  the  full  length  of  the  screw,  and  in  this 
event  the  hole  should  be  the  same  diameter  as  the  screw 
measured  at  the  base  of  the  thread. 

Where  the  thickness  of  the  boards  in  the  sides  and  end 
of  the  box  and  in  the  cleats  is  not  more  than  an  inch,  the 
size  of  the  screws  which  should  be  used  is  No.  10, 11  or  12. 
Where  the  thickness  is  %",  No.  8  or  No.  9  should  be 
used,  and  for  %"  thickness  No.  7  screws  should  be  used. 


Courtesy  of  Safcpack  Mills. 
Diagram  11 

The  length  of  the  screw  should  be  not  less  than  twice  the 
thickness  of  the  first  board  through  which  the  screw 
passes.  If  screws  still  longer  than  this  can  be  used  with- 
out splitting,  it  is  advisable.  The  screws  should  be  spaced 
about  the  same  distance  apart  as  with  nails,  or  possibly 
a  little  bit  farther  apart,  as  the  screws  make  a  stronger 
fastening  than  nails.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  drive 
any  screws  into  joints  between  the  boards,  and  screws 
should  be  placed  far  enough  from  the  joint  to  prevent 
splitting  into  it.  It  is  also  very  important  not  to  drive 
the  screws  with  a  hammer,  as  is  often  done.  The  holding 
power  of  the  screw  is  greatly  diminished  by  driving  it 
with  a  hammer,  as  the  wood  structure  around  the  threads 
is  destroyed. 

Kegarding  the  use  of  screws  on  crates,  they  are  often 
used  on  a  few  of  the  boards,  either  on  the  sheathing  or 


Courtesy  of  Sajepach  UiUt. 
Diagram  12 


75 


;  Pulley. 


I'^r 


Rope    AktAcheM- 
to  Weight 
Sh'din^   To 


7  Slot  toR« 
Iron  Bar*  A 
To   $ii'eiin5  T 


ixii"). 


t1a.cl 


^m 


Gliding  Top 

1-^"   End     of 
Slot  to  f\oor 
of  PrtiS, 


il3 


2"X6 


iatchet  & 
Pawl   to  Hold 
Pressure 


Gourteiy  of  Safepack  Millt. 
Diagram  14 


76 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES    11 

on  some  of  the  other  members  to  enable  getting  into  the 
crate  for  inspection,  without  tearing  the  boards  all  to 
pieces  in  getting  them  oif .  In  export  crates  this  is  often 
advisable  so  that  the  customs  officials  can  open  the  crate 
easily  for  inspection  purposes.  The  screws  should  be 
spaced  approximately  the  same  as  the  nails,  and  should 
be  of  a  length  not  less  than  twice  the  thickness  of  the  first 
board  through  which  the  screw  passes.  Where  the  thick- 
ness of  the  first  board  is  around  an  inch,  the  size  of  the 
screw  should  be  No.  10,  11  or  12.  For  material  thicker 
than  this,  larger  screws  will  have  to  be  used,  the  size 
depending  upon  the  thickness  of  the -material.  Where  the 
material  is  over  2"  thick,  the  use  of  screws  is  not  recom- 
mended, and  the  use  of  bolts  would  be  preferable.  As  in 
the  case  of  boxes,  no  screws  should  be  driven  into  joints, 
and  screws  should  never  be  hammer  driven. 

The  Possibilities  of  Baling. — The  packing  of  textile 
materials  in  machine  pressed  bales  offers  great  possi- 
bilities to  the  exporter,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  re- 
duced displacement  of  the  package.  Reducing  the  dis- 
placement generally  means  a  saving  in  packing  costs, 
saving  in  handling  charges,  saving  in  freight  and  a  sav- 
ing in  storage  charges.  Baling  also  means  a  great  saving 
in  import  duty,  where  the  duty  is  levied  on  the  gross 
weight  of  the  package. 

The  average  saving  in  space  by  packing  in  machine 
pressed  bales  in  place  of  in  boxes,  is  around  30  per  cent 
in  the  gross  displacement  of  the  package.  This  is  a  very 
large  item  where  the  ocean  freight  charges  are  based  on 
space  occupied.  The  War  Department  states  in  one  of- 
ficial bulletin  that  over  $50,000,000  was  saved  during  the 
war  by  baling  various  textile  articles  instead  of  packing 
in  boxes,  most  of  this  saving  being  in  the  value  of  the 
ship  space  saved.  The  experience  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment shows  that  a  great  variety  of  textile  materials  can 
be  baled,  including  underwear,  hosiery,  sweaters,  gloves, 
coats,  trousers,  towels,  blankets,  tarpaulins,  tents,  bed- 
ding, cloth  and  many  other  articles.  It  was  even  found 
possible  to  successfully  bale  high  grade  officers*  uniforms 


78  EXPORT  PACKING 

without  injury  from  the  compression,  by  carefully  folding 
and  tying  the  garments  along  the  proper  lines. 

The  Successful  Bale.— Successful  baling,  especially  of 
small  articles,  depends  largely  upon  the  making  of  firm 
compact  bales.  This  can  be  accomplished  with  small 
articles  by  careful  folding  and  tying  into  small  bundles, 
and  bricking  these  bundles  up  into  a  compact  bale  with 
the  joints  between  bundles  broken.  The  New  York 
Quartermaster  Depot  used  a  *' Forming  Box''  for  this 
purpose  with  great  success.  This  consists  of  a  box  with 
a  head  or  top  which  can  be  compressed  and  with  an  open 
front.  The  rectangrflar  opening  of  the  box  is  of  the  size 
which  it  is  desired  to  make  the  bale.  After  the  articles 
have  been  folded  and  tied  in  bundles,  they  are  bricked  up 
into  the  shape  of  the  bale  in  the  forming  box:  The  con- 
tents are  then  compressed  as  much  as  possible  and  tied 
with  strong  cord  at  several  places  to  hold  the  compres- 
sion. The  package  is  then  removed  and  transferred  to 
the  baling  press,  where  the  final  compression  is  secured 
and  the  waterproof  lining,  burlap  and  steel  strapping 
applied.  The  use  of  the  forming  box  makes  the  forming 
of  the  articles  into  the  bale  an  entirely  separate  opera- 
tion, and  releases  the  baling  machine  for  the  compression 
service  only,  thus  greatly  increasing  the  output  of  the 
machine. 

Use  of  the  Forming  Box. — I  quote  the  following  de- 
scription of  the  mechanism  and  use  of  the  forming  box 
and  baling  press,  from  a  pamphlet  written  by  me  and 
issued  by  the  Saf  epack  Mills : 

**The  forming  box  shown  here  is  double  and  was  de- 
signed by  the  New  York  Quartermaster  Depot  for  the 
army  size  of  bale,  30"  x  15"  x  14"  to  19".  Essentially  it 
is  a  wooden  box  with  open  front  and  a  top  shelf,  that  can 
be  pulled  down  by  means  of  a  hand  wheel  to  tighten  the 
bundles  or  pieces  into  a  compact  package  of  the  proper 
size  ready  for  compressing  in  the  baling  press. 

**The  inside  dimensions  of  the  box  are,  length  29", 
width  15"  and  height  36".  There  are  four  slots  *x'  (Dia- 
grams 12  and  13)  for  the  four  cords  used  to  tie  the  pack- 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES    79 

age  while  it  is  under  compression.  There  is  also  a  ratchet 
and  pawl  (Diagram  14)  on  the  end  of  the  hand  wheel 
shaft,  to  hold  the  compression  on  the  package  while  it  is 
being  tied.  The  four  strings  used  to  tie  the  package  are 
removed  when  the  package  is  in  the  baling  press  and 
are  used  over  again.'' 


Courtesy  of  Safcpack  Mills. 

Diagram  13 


Use  of  the  Baling  Press. — ^' After  preliminary  press- 
ing and  tying  in  the  forming  box,  the  package  is  removed 
to  the  baling  press  for  the  final  compression.  A  piece  of 
burlap  and  a  sheet  of  waterproof  lining  material  are 
placed  on  the  base  of  the  press,  and  the  package  is  placed 
upon  them.  Another  sheet  of  waterproof  lining  material 
and  a  piece  of  burlap  are  then  placed  on  top  of  the  bale. 
(If  the  press  is  the  closed  type  it  is  necessary  to  fold  or 
roll  back  the  ends  of  the  burlap  and  waterproof  lining 


80  EXPORT  PACKING 

which  project  beyond  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  bale,  so 
that  they  will  not  be  injured  during  the  compressing.) 
The  pressure  is  then  applied,  and  upon  completion  the 
waterproof  lining  and  burlap  are  folded  over  on  the  sides 
so  that  they  lap  perfectly.  The  bale  is  then  bound  with 
straps  and  the  straps  sealed.  The  pressure  is  then  re- 
leased and  the  bale  removed  from  the  press  for  sewing." 

The  amount  of  compression  which  can  be  secured  in 
any  particular  case  depends  upon  the  article  which  is 
being  baled.  Some  materials  are  very  compressible, 
while  others  are  less  so.  The  presence  of  metal  fasten- 
ings, eyelets,  buckles,  hooks,  etc.,  also  affect  the  degree 
to  which  the  material  can  be  compressed.'  To  quote 
again : 

Types  of  Baling  Press. — ''There  are  a  number  of 
different  types  of  baling  presses  in  use,  including  hand 
lever  operated  presses,  electrical  presses,  hydraulic 
presses  and  other  types  of  power  presses.  There  are 
also  open  and  closed  presses.  The  type  of  press  which 
should  be  used  in  any  particular  case  depends  chiefly 
upon  the  size  of  the  baling  operation,  the  space  available 
in  the  packing  room  and  the  type  of  goods  which  is  being 
baled ;  therefore,  no  definite  recommendation  can  be  given 
on  this  point. 

' '  For  a  small  operation  with  an  output  of  around  100 
bales  per  day,  a  hajid  lever  operated  press  with  a  large 
enough  chamber  to  make  two  bales  at  one  time,  is  gen- 
erally satisfactory.  On  the  other  hand,  for  a  large  opera- 
tion where  the  output  is  several  hundred  bales  per  day, 
a  mechanical  power  press  making  two  or  four  bales  at 
one  time  will  prove  more  economical.  The  New  York 
Quartermaster  Depot,  which  during  the  war  was  prob- 
ably the  largest  baling  operation  in  the  country,  used  a 
number  of  electrically  operated  closed  presses,  each  press 
making  four  bales  at  one  time.  In  an  economical  baling 
operation  the  presses  should  be  kept  busy  all  the  time, 
and  this  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  selecting  the  type  of 
press  and  in  deciding  upon  the  number  of  presses  which 
are  required.    The  press  should  be  capable  of  compress- 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES    81 

ing  the  bale  to  maximum  density  and  should  have  a  maxi- 
mum pressure  of  not  less  than  20  tons. 

^^  There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
relative  merits  of  open  and  closed  presses.  Some  army 
experts  maintain  that  the  closed  press  is  better;  they 
claim  that  it  makes  more  rectangular,  uniform  sized  bales. 
Others  maintain  that  the  open  press  is  biBtter  because  it 
is  easier  to  get  at  all  sides  of  the  bale  while  it  is  under 
compression;  and  also  because  it  is  easier  to  handle  the 
waterproof  lining  and  burlap  covering. '' 

Size  of  Bale. — The  War  Department  adopted  a  stand- 
ard size  of  bale,  namely,  30"  long,  15"  wide  and  with  a 
height  varying  from  14  to  19  inches.  The  average  weight 
of  the  bale  was  70  to  140  lbs.  This  is  a  considerably 
smaller  bale  than  is  generally  used  commercially,  but  it 
has  advantages  over  the  larger  bale.  It  is  twice  as  long 
as  it  is  wide,  which  makes  it  a  good  shape  for  storage, 
because  they  can  be  stacked  up  both  lengthwise  and  cross- 
wise and  make  an  even  pile.  It  is  of  a  size  and  weight 
which  can  be  conveniently  handled  by  either  one  or  two 
men,  minimizing  the  desire  or  tendency  to  use  hooks, 
which  there  would  be  with  the  larger,  heavier  bale.  It  is 
of  a  convenient  size  to  make,  being  easily  and  quickly 
handled  into  and  out  of  the  baling  machine. 

Outside  Covering. — Every  bale  should  have  a  water- 
proof lining  beneath  the  outside  covering.  This  is  taken 
up  in  detail  under  ** Waterproofing.'*  The  material 
which  is  generally  used  for  the  outside  covering  is  bur- 
lap, because  of  its  strong  binding  qualities,  its  resistance 
to  abrasion,  and  its  comparative  cheapness  compared  to 
other  materials  possessing  equal  qualities.  The  weight 
of  the  burlap  should  never  be  less  than  10-ounce  40-inch 
basis,  as  the  lighter  burlaps  do  not  have  sufficient* 
strength.  Second-hand  burlap  should  never  be  used  as  a 
covering  for  export  bales  unless  it  is  in  very  good 
condition. 

Binding. — Flat  steel  band  strapping  makes  a  better 
binding  for  bales,  especially  bales  of  textile  materials, 
than  either  rope  or  wire  ties.    When  rope  is  used,  con- 


82  EXPORT  PACKING 

siderable  of  the  compression  is  lost  upon  releasing  the 
compression  of  the  baling  machine,  owing  to  the  stretch- 
ing of  the  rope.  Also  a  bale  bound  with  rope  is  easy  to 
pilfer.  Wire  ties  are  not  as  strong  as  steel  band,  do  not 
hold  the  bale  as  rigid  owing  to  the  smaller  surface  in  con- 
tact with  the  bale,  and  are  liable  to  produce  cutting  of 
the  covering  material  unless  slats  are  used  between  the 
wire  and  the  burlap.  Steel  band  should  always  be  coated 
to  prevent  rust,  and  should  be  unannealed,  as  the  unan- 
nealed  strap  is  stronger  than  the  annealed  and  will  not 
stretch.  The  thickness  and  width  of  strap  required  de- 
pend on  the  size  and  weight  of  the  bale.  For  bales  not 
exceeding  140  lbs.  gross  weight  and  not  of  excessive  size, 
a  %"  No.  26  gauge  strap  having  a  tensile  strength  of 
not  less  than  850  lbs.  is  satisfactory.  The  straps  should 
be  placed  at  frequent  enc^ugh  intervals  to  hold  the  com- 
pression. On  the  War  Department  bales  4  bands  were 
used  on  a  bale  30"  long,  the  outside  bands  being  not  less 
than  4"  in  from  the  ends,  and  the  other  two  spaced  equi- 
distant from  the  end  bands  and  from  each  other.  The 
straps  should  be  stretched  to  maximum  tension  with  a 
mechanical  stretching  tool  while  the  bale  is  under  com- 
pression, and  the  ends  should  be  securely  sealed  with  a 
buckle  or  other  seal  which  will  give  a  strong  sealed  joint. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  break  off  or  fold  under  all  loose 
ends  of  strap  so  that  no  spider  is  left  projecting. 

After  the  bale  has  been  strapped  and  removed  from 
the  baling  machine,  the  burlap  should  be  sewed  up  sides 
and  ends  with  strong  baling  twine.  Each  stitch  should 
be  knotted  and  all  ends  of  the  twine  should  be  securely 
fastened.  Surplus  burlap  should  be  gathered  together  at 
each  of  the  corners  and  sewed  into  ears  not  less  than  five 
inches  in  length.  The  ears  serve  as  handles  and  reduce 
the  tendency  to  handle  the  bale  with  hooks. 

Protection  Against  Hooks. — The  danger  of  damage  by 
hooks  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  baling  has  not  been 
adopted  to  a  greater  extent  in  packing  textile  materials. 

About  the  only  protection  against  hooks  is  to  line  the 
bale  beneath  the  burlap  with  heavy  fibre  board,  testing, 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOXES,  CRATES,  BALES     83 

say,  not  less  than  200  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  Mullen  Test. 
Thin  strips  of  lumber  and  veneer  are  also  sometimes  used. 
Another  precaution  sometimes  taken  is  to  stencil  on  the 
bale  in  large  letters,  *'Use  no  hooks.''  It  is  doubtful, 
however,  that  marking  the  bale  in  this  manner  helps  very 
much,  as  many  stevedores  either  cannot  read  or  do  not 
have  time  to  read  directions,  and  the  words  are  likely  to 
be  unintelligible  when  the  bale  arrives  in  a  country  where 
English  is  not  spoken.  As  explained  in  preceding  para- 
graphs, placing  ears  on  the  corners  of  a  bale  also  reduces 
the  tendency  to  use  hooks,  as  the  bale  can  be  easily 
handled  by  means  of  these  ears.  Another  point  which 
has  been  brought  out  is  that  if  the  size  of  bale  is  kept 
down  to  around  140  lbs.,  gross  weight,  there  is  not  the 
tendency  to  use  hooks  that  there  is  in  the  larger  bale.  Of 
course  insurance  mav  be  taken  out  covering  damage  from 
hooks. 

Waterproofing. — Bales  containing  textile  materials 
are  always  lined  beneath  the  outside  covering  of  burlap  ' 
with  a  waterproof  covering  of  some  sort.  There  are 
several  materials  which  are  used  for  this  purpose,*  among 
them  being  waterproof  tarpaulins,  oilcloth,  _  rubberized 
fabrics  of  various  kinds  and  waterproof  paper.  Tarpau- 
lins, rubberized  fabrics  and  oilcloth  are  very  strong  and 
waterproof,  but  are  also  very  expensive. 

Recent  developments  in  the  manufacture  of  water- 
proof paper  have  produced  papers  which  make  satisfac- 
tory bale  lining  for  many  kinds  of  material.  Among  them 
is  an  expansive  paper  wliich  has  been  much  used  by  the 
War  Department  for  lining  bales  of  clothing,  this  paper 
having  a  stretch  of  30  per  cent  in  length  and  6  to  12  per 
cent  in  width  of  the  sheet.  The  ability  of  a  bale  lining 
paper  to  stretch  is  valuable,  because  there  is  considerable 
expansion  of  the  bale  between  the  bands  when  the  pres- 
sure of  the  baling  press  is  released,  and  the  expansive 
paper  absorbs  this  bulge  without  breaking.  This  expan- 
sion is  greater  in  the  height  than  in  the  width  of  the  bale, 
so  it  is  necessary  that  the  paper  have  the  greater  expan- 
sion in  the  length  of  the  sheet.    The  weight  of  paper  gen- 


84  EXPORT  PACKING 

erally  used  is  one  60-lb.  sheet,  basis  24"  x  36" — 480,  sat- 
urated with  a  waterproof  compound,  or  two  30-lb.  sheets 
cemented  together  with  a  waterproof  compound.  Various 
waterproof  compounds  have  been  used,  including  wax  and 
asphaltum.  The  compound  which  is  used,  however, 
should  be  capable  of  rendering  the  sheet  thoroughly- 
waterproof,  and  should  not  be  of  a  character  which  will 
penetrate  through  the  paper  and  stain  the  contents  of 
the  bale. 

Two  sheets  are  generally  used,  one  over  the  top  and 
one  over  the  bottom  of  the  bale,  and  they  should  be  of 
sufficient  length  and  width  to  lap  several  inches  on  the 
sides  and  ends.  Bales  containing  very  valuable  material 
or  material  very  susceptible  to  damage,  are  often  lined 
with  4  or  even  6  sheets  to  insure  perfect  protection. 


CHAPTEE  IV 

PRACTICAL  NOTES  ON  EXPORT  SHIPPING 

By  M.  C.  Fitz  Gerald, 
Manager  of  Transportation,  General  Electric  Company, 

IN  the  belief  that  some  of  our  brother  manufacturers 
may  find  interest  and  perhaps  value  in  some  of  the 
practical  methods  which  we  have  adopted  and  stand- 
ardized for  the  packing  and  shipping  of  electrical  appa- 
ratus and  supplies,  I  here  present  some  principles  to  be 
observed  in  connection  with  the  construction  of  the  con- 
tainers, their  markings  and  the  arrangement  of  the  ma- 
terials inside  the  containers. 

The  General  Electric  Company  operates  on  the  prin- 
ciple that  ^'The  order  has  not  been  completed  until  the 
customer  is  satisfied.'^ 

We  have  tried  to  place  ourselves  in  the  position  of  the 
customer  or  consignee.  We  have  studied  the  conditions 
of  transportation,  in  at  least  three  ways:  first,  as  re- 
ported by  our  agents  and  customers — second,  as  reported 
by  the  United  States  Consuls  both  to  Washington  as  well 
as  direct  to  ourselves,  and  third,  by  the  reports  of  our 
construction  men  and  commercial  men  who  are  traveling 
the  four  quarters  of  the  globe. 

The  result  of  these  studies  has  forced  us  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  two  principal  features  in  successful  ex- 
port shipping  are  the  container  and  its  markings.  They 
are  of  about  equal  importance  and  to  slight  either  one  of 
these  is  likely  to  disappoint  our  good  customers.  Be- 
tween factory  and  destination  many  things  can  happen 
unless  proper  provisions  are  made;  and  either  a  faulty 

85 


86  EXPORT  PACKING 

container  or  inadequate  markings  may  result  in  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1 — Kef usal  by  the  steamship  company  to  ac- 
cept the  shipment, 

2 — The  destruction  or  loss  of  material  i^ 
the  cargo  aboard  ship, 

3 — The  destruction  or  loss  of  material  be- 
tween ship  and  sliore, 

4 — Accident  or  loss  while  lying  on  the  piers, 

5 — Accident  or  loss  while  traveling  inland 
to  point  of  destination. 

In  getting  material  safely  into  the  hands  of  the  cus- 
tomer regardless  of  exposure,  rough  handling  and  delays 
and  regardless  of  the  different  languages  spoken  by  the 
employees  of  the  carrying  companies  en  route,  we  feel 
we  have  been  quite  successful.  The  following  notes  rep- 
resent good  average  procedure. 

Containers. — In  determining  the  size  and  weight  of 
containers  for  miscellaneous  shipping,  we  try  to  adhere 
as  closely  as  possible  to  a  maximum  gross  weight  of  300 
lbs.  and  a  maximum  measurement  of  2'  x  2'  x  3'.  In  both 
domestic  as  well  as  export  shipping,  less  difficulties  are 
encountered  with  the  above  size  and  weight.  However, 
there  are,  of  course,  a  great  many  pieces  of  apparatus  of 
much  heavier  weight  and  requiring  much  larger  cases. 
Note,  for  example,  reproduction  of  photograph  No.  19, 
page  87.  The  gross  weight  of  this  case  is  37,410  pounds, 
the  net  weight  31,200  pounds.  The  case  measures  113 
inches  by  73  inches  by  217  inches.  As  to  details  of  con- 
tainer construction,  valuable  data  have  been  compiled  by 
the  United  States  Forest  Products  Laboratory  at  Madi- 
son, Wisconsin,  and  the  War  Department.^ 

In  no  particular  do  the  reproductions  of  photographs 
which  accompany  this  chapter  require  more  careful  ob- 
servation and  study  than  in  the  evidence  of  the  great 
care  which  has  been  taken  so  to  strengthen  the  boxes  as 

*  The  essential  features  of  the  bulletins  here  in  question  are  reprinted 
in   Chapter   V. 


(19) 


Courtesy  oj  General  Electric  Co. 
Case  Containing  Top  Half  Armature. 


Note  notches  cut  for  slings,  ventilating  holes,  hand  iron  stretched  tight  nailed 
from  k  to  6  inches.  Shipping  marks  appear  on  two  sides  of  case  which  weighs 
gross  S7,U0  lbs.,  net  31,200  lbs.     Height  113",  width  73",  length  217", 


(20  and  21) 


Courtesy  of  General  Electric  Co. 
CASE  OF  Unusually  Rugged  Construction. 


(Left)  Side  view  of  case.  Thickness  and  class  of  lumber  vanes  accordtng 
to  weight  and  nature  of  contents.  Capable  of  withstanding  all  sorts  of  hard- 
ships even  in  transit.     (Right)    End  view  of  the  same  case. 


87 


Courtesy  of  General  Eleetrir  Co. 

(22)     Packing  of  ARMATURii  for  Converter'. 
Interior  of  case  and  preparations  for  landing  armature  in  case.     Note  water- 
proof  lining   of  ease,   application   of  protective   rust   preventive    compound,   and 
bed  of  cxceUior  covered   with  oilcloth  case  lining  prepared  for  body  of  field 


(23) 


Courtesp  of  General  Electric  Co. 
Making  a  Tension  Line  Test. 


Armature  has  been  placed  in  ease,  and  distribution  of  weight  is  being  tested  by 
tension  on  string  in  order  to  equally  divide  weight  between  face  of  armature 
and  shaft  bearings. 

88 


PRACTICAL  NOTES  ON  EXPORT  SHIPPING      89 

to  prevent  their  being  crushed  by  superimposed  weights 
and  prevent  collapse  in  the  event  of  cases  being  turned 
on  their  sides.  For  example,  in  photograph  No.  1,  page 
11,  the  frame  of  this  apparatus  is  engaged  by  cross 
braces  which  are  also  supported  by  endwise  braces  from 
the  cross  brace  to  the  end  of  the  case.  These  braces  are 
held  in  place  by  nailing  through  the  top  of  the  box.  The 
long  side  brace  is  in  position  where  it  will  not  increase 
the  size  of  the  container,  but  will  provide  protection  in 
dissipating  any  strain  over  the  whole  side  of  the  case 
should  it  be  turned  on  its  side.  Attention  is  drawn  to 
the  comer  posts  shown  in  photograph  No.  4,  page  12. 
These  are  found  necessary  in  cases  of  certain  dimensions 
as  a  support  to  prevent  the  case  from  collapsing  or  other- 
wise being  unfavorably  affected  by  any  cargo  which 
might  be  stowed  on  top  of  it.  Photograph  No.  6,  page 
21,  illustrates  the  bracing  in  and  around  the  yoke  of  S, 
converter,  which  is  here  shown  providing  protection  for  it 
regardless  of  the  manner  in  which  it  may  be  handled ;  in 
other  words,  if  it  is  thrown  on  its  side  or  end  there  is 
no  serious  damage  likely  to  result.  The  welding  ma- 
chine shown  in  photograph  No.  9,  page  31,  is  shown 
shipped  complete  with  top  mechanisms,  because  these 
mechanisms  require  adjustment  and  if  removed  the  cus- 
tomer might  have  considerable  trouble.  The  result  is, 
there  is  a  considerable  empty  space  in  the  box  and  in 
order  to  protect  the  contents  properly,  cribbing  supports 
have  to  be  built  which  also  ensure  against  the  top  col- 
lapsing from  cargo  load.  The  framing  shown  in  photo- 
graph No.  12,  page  32,  is  required  in  order  that  the  case 
may  be  as  rigid  at  the  top  as  at  the  bottom  so  that  should 
it  ride  on  side,  end  or  top,  it  would  still  retain  its  rect- 
angular form.  The  use  of  corner  posts  already  referred 
to  will  further  be  observed  in  photograph  No.  18,  page 
52.  These  heavy  corner  posts  are  capable  of  support- 
ing any  load  in  cargo  stowage,  and  the  box  itself  is  made 
of  two  thicknesses  of  lumber  nailed  together,  one  at  right 
angles  to  the  other,  the  nails  being  clinched.  The  inner 
course  is  made  shorter  than  the  outer  course  at  each  of 


So  EXPORT  PACKING 

the  joints  a  distance  to  correspond  with  the  thickness  of 
the  lumber  used,  so  that  the  sides  and  ends  come  together 
at  each  joint  with  a  step  joint.  The  cover  meets  the  sides 
and  the  ends  in  the  same  manner.  This  method  of  join- 
ing sides,  ends  and  top  together  provides  a  strong  joint 
and  easy  means  of  adequate  and  substantial  nailing.  It 
should  be  observed  that  this  piece  of  apparatus  weighs 
over  15  tons.  Good  illustrations  of  containers  of  the  most 
rugged  construction  capable  of  withstanding  all  sorts  of 
hardships  in  transit,  are  shown  in  photographs  No. '20, 
page  87,  and  No.  21,  page  87,  showing  end  view  and 
side  view,  the  thickness  and  class  of  lumber  being  varied 
to  correspond  with  the  weight  and  nature  of  the  contents. 

The  use  of  a  crate  in  packing  certain  forms  of  machin- 
ery is  illustrated  in  photographs  No.  7,  page  22,  and 
No.  6,  page  21.  The  crate  provides  a  visual  survey  of 
the  contents.  It  is  believed  to  provide  a  reasonable 
amount  of  protection  for  semi-fragile  material  where  the 
contents  are  of  such  a  character  that  the  risk  of  pilfering 
does  not  have  to  be  considered.  Another  use  of  the  crate 
may  be  noted  in  photograph  No.  30,  page  100.  In  this 
example  the  sides  of  the  crate  are  of  very  light,  springy 
construction,  introducing  shock  absorbing  qualities,  and 
it  is  believed  that  when  packing  apparatus  of  the  char- 
acter of  that  shown  the  cases  should  be  made  as  light  as 
possible  consistent  with  the  safe  carrying  of  the  appar- 
atus, so  that  the  effect  of  blows  will  be  the  minimum. 

Shape  of  Container. — "Wherever  possible  the  container 
should  have  the  shape  of  a  cube — all  dimensions  the  same. 
The  advantage  of  this  construction  is  that  it  allows  the 
case  to  ride  in  the  position  in  which  it  lands,  whereas  if 
one  dimension  is  ipuch  less  than  the  others,  the  case  will 
receive  many  more  shocks  from  falling  or  tipping  over 
while  in  transit. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  or  necessary  to  depart  from 
the  preferred  rectangular  shape  of  container  and  build 
special  cases  of  modified  designs,  very  especially  when 
it  is  necessary  that  the  cases,  if  possible,  ride  on  their 
bottoms.     Photograph  No.   16,  page  42,   for  example. 


PRACTICAL  NOTES  ON  EXPORT  SHIPPING     91 

shows  a  case  in  ''A''  shape.  The  accompanying  photo- 
graph No.  15,  page  42,  shows  the  contents  of  this  case, 
a  switchboard,  with  the  two  ends  and  side  of  the  case  in 
position.  This  ^*  A^'  shape  is  adopted  in  order  to  suggest 
its  riding  in  an  upright  position,  although  if  it  were  to 
be  turned  over  it  is  doubtful  if  any  injury  would  be  done 
the  switchboard,  which  is  to  be  delivered  to  the  customer 
without  being  knocked  down.  So  far  as  possible,  the 
^*A^*  bracing  is  fastened  to  the  case.  The  ^'A*'  frame 
support  and  the  cross  tie  were  found  necessary  in  order 
to  prevent  the  switchboard  from  turning  over.  The  same 
result  is  sought  in  the  use  of  the  fan  extensions  at  the 
bottom  of  the  crate  shown  in  photograph  No.  30,  page 
100,  which  indicate  the  position  in  which  the  crate  is  to 
ride.  Observe  also  the  handle  at  the  top  which  is  to  indi- 
cate the  manner  in  which  the  crate  is  to  be  handled. 
Photograph  No.  28,  page  99,  shows  an  odd  shape  of 
packing,  the  same  being  the  complete  boxing  of  the  ap- 
paratus shown  in  photograph  No.  27,  page  94.  Atten- 
tion is  here  drawn  to  the  boxing,  or  housing,  over  the 
extended  shaft. 

Protection  from  Moisture.— The  case  should  be  lined 
with  waterproof  or  moisture-proof  covering,  particularly 
if  the  contents  are  such  as  could  be  damaged  by  water 
or  dampness.  Even  when  material  is  proof  against  dam- 
age by  moisture,  it  is  nevertheless  desirable  to  line  the 
cases,  for  it  provides  the  protection  which  allows  the 
materials  to  arrive  in  a  clean  condition  and  new  in  ap- 
pearance— a  feature  highly  desirable  in  the  marketing  of 
any  product.  This  case  lining  should  be  of  a  quality  and 
a  strength  consistent  with  the  nature  of  the  contents  and 
the  weight  and  size  of  the  case. 

In  large  cases  the  lining  material  should  be  strong  on 
account  of  the  excessive  shrinkage;  also  a  large  case  is 
more  easily  racked  (thrown  out  of  rectangular  shape) 
and  this  tendency  imposes  severe  strains  on  the  case 
lining.  The  case  lining  should  be  fastened  to  the  inside 
of  the  box  only  sufficiently  to  hold  lining  in  place,  i.  e., 
should  be  free  from  it — a  method  which  prevents  the 


92  EXPORT  PACKING 

lining  from  being  subjected  to  strains  produced  by 
shocks,  racking  or  shrinkage. 

Additional  Protection. — In  addition  to  waterproof 
case  linings  mentioned  above,  the  apparatus  or  contents 
should  be  securely  covered  with  waterproof  cloth  or  a 
good  grade  of  waterproof  paper  securely  fastened  to  the 
contents. 

The  practice  of  making  a  double  case  and  placing  the 
waterproofing  between  the  two  thicknesses  of  lumber  is 
ineffective  and  a  waste  of  both  time  and  material,  for 
as  the  lumber  shrinks,  the  waterproofing  becomes  torn 
at  the  joint — the  very  place  where  it  is  really  wanted. 
But  when  the  cases  are  lined  on  the  inside,  allowing  a 
fullness  of  material  and  fastened  only  sufficiently  to  in- 
sure its  remaining  in  place,  this  constitutes  an  effective 
covering  which  is  not  likely  to  be  destroyed  by  the  shrink- 
ing of  the  lumber  or  the  racking  of  the  case. 

As  illustrating  practical  methods  of  using  case  linings 
and  otherwise  rendering  machinery  proof  against  dam- 
age from  humidity  as  well  as  water,  attention  is  drawn 
to  the  reproductions  of  numerous  photographs  showing 
the  packing  methods  employed  by  this  company.  For 
example,  photograph  No.  1,  page  11,  illustrates  how 
case  and  skid  are  lined  with  cotton  covered  waterproof 
treated  paper  on  the  inside  so  that  it  will  not  be  affected 
by  the  shrinkage  of  the  lumber.  In  photograph  No.  3, 
page  12,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  skid  has  been  lined 
with  cotton  covered  waterproof  paper.  The  case  shown 
in  photograph  No.  18,  page  52,  is  lined  on  the  inside 
and  before  final  closing  the  app^aratus  is  thoroughly  cov- 
ered with  carriage  cloth  securely  fastened.  Photograph 
No.  17,  page  51,  is  another  illustration  of  the  same  sta- 
tionary armature  and  in  this  photograph  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  skid  has  been  covered  with  cotton  covered  water- 
proof paper.  The  oil  cloth  case  lining  covering  a  bed 
of  excelsior  will  be  observed  in  photograph  No.  22,  page 
88.  This  same  case  is  lined  with  cotton  covered  water- 
proof paper  on  the  inside  so  that  it  will  not  be  affected 
by  any  shrinkage  of  the  wood.    It  is  regarded  as  a  mis- 


Courtesy  of  General  Electric  Co. 
(24)     Partly  Completed  Case  for  Armature. 
-^^wa^w^e  is  clamped  in  place,  wedged  at  each  end,  and  shaft  is  thoroughly 


Courtesy  of  General  Electric  Co. 

(25)     Another  Method  for  Providing  for  Use  of  Slings. 

Armature  completely  hoxed  and  ready  for  shipment.  Note  horns  provided  for 
engaging  slings.  Later  practice  cuts  off  these  horns  and  provides  slots  on 
under  side  of  skid  for  slinging. 


93 


Courtesy  of  General  Electric  Co. 
(26)     Method  of  Skidding  Yoke  of  Converter. 

Note  application  of  rust  preventive  compound  to  machined  surfaces  of  yoke 
and  to  skid  where  such  surfaces  rest. 


y-'T^giWgv^W^"*?^--;-''^-'-^-.!;  ■,<»J<^^mi!'*aS-'-'^ ■mmmm 


(27) 


Courtesy  of  General  Electric  Co. 
Packing  of  Rotating  Element  with  Shaft. 


Note  tearing  under  shaft  close  to  field,  and  further  at  end  of  extended'  shaft, 
this  latter  carrying  no  weight.  Cradle  padded  with  excelsior  and  covered  with 
oilcloth  case  lining.  Observe  blocking  held  in  place  by  angular  braces  making 
contents  a  solid  mass.     For  detailed  description  of  method  employed  see  text. 

94 


PRACTICAL  NOTES  ON  EXPORT  SHIPPING     % 

take  to  place  waterproof  paper  between  the  'two  thick- 
nesses of  lumber  because  when  that  lumber  shrinks  it 
will  carry  the  paper  with  it,  destroying  its  value  as 
waterproofing.  Again  in  photograph  No.  27,  page  94, 
there  appears  an  example  of  an  excelsior  padding  cov- 
ered with  oil  cloth  case  lining. 

Preventing  Rust  and  Mildew. — Cases  containing 
machines  or  a  large  body  of  metal  should  be  properly 
ventilated.  The  old  way  of  tightly  enclosing  them  in 
order  to  exclude  moisture  has  been  proven  to  be  a  mis- 
take. Ventilating  can  be  done  by  boring  two  rows  of  two 
inch  holes.  One  row  of  holes  should  be  at  convenient 
points  near  the  top  and  another  row  near  the  bottom  on 
sides  or  ends  of  containers.  There  should  also  be  a  few 
holes  in  the  bottom  to  permit  the  escape  of  water  which 
may  wash  in  through  the  ventilating  holes.  The  holes 
should  be  covered  by  a  piece  of  wire  screen,  of  approxi- 
mately one-half  inch  mesh,  nailed  to  the  inside  of  the  case 
in  order  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  mice  or  rats ;  and  the 
ventiljating  holes  should  be  from  18  to  24  inch  centers, 
depending  on  the  mass  of  metal. 

In  addition  to  the  wire  screen  another  provision  may 
be  made  on  the  inside  of  the  case  behind  the  holes.  When 
water  swashes  inside  these  holes  or  a  driving  rain  pene- 
trates, means  must  be  taken  for  preventing  this  water 
from  reaching  the  contents.  A  tin,  sheet  iron  or  zinc  de- 
flector is  nailed  over  the  inside  of  each  hole  securely  fas- 
tened to  the  case.  This  deflector,  or  metal  baffler,  is  about 
8"  long  and  is  larger  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom; 
roughly  it  resembles  one-half  of  a  cone  split  longitudin- 
ally with  flanges  for  nailing.  The  deflector  should  be  cen- 
tered with  respect  to  the  holes.  This  not  only  prevents 
the  water  from  striking  the  contents  but  also  directs  the 
water  downward  along  the  sides  of  the  case  where  it  can 
run  out  of  the  bottom  holes. 

Many  examples  are  to  be  noted  among  the  reproduc- 
tions of  photographs  accompanying  this  chapter  of  the 
fashion  in  which  it  has  been  found  desirable  to  ventilate 
cases  containing  machines  or  large  masses  of  metal  in 


96  EXPORT  PACKING 

order  to  prevent  rust  and  mildew.  Ventilating  holes  cov- 
ered by  wire  screens  will  be  observed  in  photograph 
No.  1,  page  11,  and  in  the  photograph  of  the  same  ma- 
chine fully  boxed,  photograph  No.  2,  page  11.  This 
shows  the  ventilating  holes  from  the  outside.  Other  sim- 
ilar photographs  of  completed  cases  give  illustrations  of 
ventilating  holes  provided  to  prevent  the  accumulation 
of  moisture  by  condensation  and  to  relieve  the  air  pres- 
sure on  the  inside  of  the  case. 

Metal  Containers. — The  practice  of  shipping  miscel- 
laneous material  in  metal  containers  or  metal  lined  con- 
tainers has  been  abandoned  by  us  except  when  specially 
requested  by  our  customers.  Metal  containers  and  metal 
linings  do  not  prevent  rust.  Not  only  is  this  metal  likely 
to  be  punctured  by  nails,  or  have  the  seams  opened  up 
by  rough  handling,  twisting  or  racking  the  case  in  transit, 
but  it  has  been  found  that  pin  holes  are  likely  to  occur  in 
the  soldering  even  when  the  container  has  been  carefully 
handled  or  even  not  handled  at  all. 

Self-Sealing  Pitch  Covered  Canvas.— Instead  of  the 
metal  containers,  we  now  use  self-sealing  pitch  covered 
canvas,  which  will  not  crack  from  cold  and  which  is  ren- 
dered even  more  flexible  by  heat.  Its  flexibility  prevents 
puncturing,  and  being  also  very  tough,  the  covering  will 
not  rip  even  if  the  case  racks.  This  has  been  found  the 
best  for  waterproof  covering  for  shipments  to  be  carried 
on  the  backs  of  burros  or  for  muleback  transportation,  or 
where  material  is  transported  in  an  open  boat,  or  is  re- 
quired to  stand  in  the  open  without  cover. 

Protecting  Nickeled  and  Bright  Parts. — Bright  brass, 
copper  or*  nickeled  parts  can  be  properly  protected  by 
wrapping  securely  with  soft  paper  free  from  sulphur. 
Bright  steel  parts  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  dried 
and  coated  with  rust  preventive  compound — not  vaseline 
or  white  lead  and  tallow,  or  any  of  the  so-called  ''home 
preparations.''  There  are  many  good  preparations 
made  especially  for  this  purpose  which  are  now  on  the 
market. 

A  number  of  evidences  of  the  way  in  which  bright 


PRACTICAL  NOTES  ON  EXPORT  SHIPPING     97 

parts  of  machineiy  have  been  protected  before  and  dur- 
ing packing  will  be  observed  among  the  accompanying 
photographs.  In  photograph  No.  3,  page  12,  it  will 
be  noted  that  the  bearing  parts  of  the  skids  which  are 
to  come  in  contact  with  the  finished  parts  of  the  machine 
have  been  covered  with  rust  preventive.  The  same  piece 
of  apparatus  is  illustrated  in  photograph  No.  6,  page 
21,  in  which  there  is  to  be  observed  the  oare  which  has 
been  exercised  in  covering  the  parts  that  have  been  treat- 
ed with  rust  preventive.  In  photograph  No.  17,  page 
51,  it  will  again  be  noted  that  the  machined  surface  of 
joints  where  the  upper  and  lower  halves  come  together, 
is  being  thoroughly  covered  with  rust  preventive  com- 
pound immediately  before  the  apparatus  is  landed  on  the 
skid.  The  part  of  the  skid  on  which  it  comes  to  rest  will 
also  be  covered  with  the  same  compound.  At  the  point 
where  the  shaft  is  to  rest,  shown  in  photograph  No.  22, 
page  88,  stains  will  be  noted.  These  are  from  the  slush- 
ing compound  or  rust  preventive  with  which  the  wood  at 
these  points  has  been  treated.  Over  this  is  placed  a  piece 
of  zinc  which  is  also  covered  with  slush.  In  addition, 
the  shaft  is  covered  so  that  there  is  no  possible  lack  of 
slushing  compound  at  or  near  the  point  where  the  shaft 
rests.  The  same  armature  in  another  stage  of  packing 
is  shown  in  photograph  No.  24,  page  93,  where  it  will  be 
noted  that  the  shaft  has  been  thoroughly  slushed  from 
one  end  to  the  other.  Dark  colored  stains  showing  where 
machined  surfaces  have  been  covered  with  a  compound 
for  the  prevention  of  rust  are  also  to  be  noted  in  photo- 
graph No.  26,  page  94.  It  will  once  more  be  noted  here 
that  the  yoke  bearing  is  in  process  of  being  covered  with 
rust  preventive,  which  will  also  be  applied  to  that  part 
of  the  skids  where  these  bearings  come  to  rest.  In  pho- 
tograph No.  27,  page  94,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  shaft 
is  carefully  slushed  under  the  bearings.  The  method 
followed  is  that  in  the  first  place  the  hollowed  out  wood 
section  of  the  skid  in  which  the  shaft  is  to  rest  is  covered 
thoroughly  with  a  rust  preventive.  In  this  space  is 
placed  a  piece  of  zinc  of  adequate  length  and  width  to 


98  EXPORT  PACKING 

encircle  the  shaft  and  this  is  also  treated  with  rust  pre- 
ventive, while  the  shaft  itself  before  being  placed  in  the 
bearing  is  also  treated. 

Shock  Absorbers. — When  cushioning  or  shock  absorb- 
ing material  is  required  between  articles  in  the  case,  or 
between  the  contents  and  the  case,  there  is  a  danger  in 
the  improper  use  of  excelsior,  hay,  straw,  paper,  sawdust 
and  similar  material;  for  the  person  doing  the  packing 
may  not  provide  the  proper  kind  of  cushion  or  the  proper 
amount  of  cushioning  material.  However,  a  cushion  of 
felt  or  cellular  paper,  or  a  wrapping  of  the  enclosed 
articles  therein,  can  be  made  to  insure  a  definite  or  fixed 
cushion. 

Among  the  photographs  accompanying  this  article 
there  will  be  noted  several  examples  of  the  use  of  shock 
absorbing  material  and  devices.  For  example,  in  photo- 
graph No.  11,  page  32,  observe  the  bed  of  excelsior 
which  has  been  made  to  conform  to  the  shape  of  the  coils. 
The  next  photograph.  No.  12,  page  32,  showing  a  crate 
of  these  coils  illustrates  the  cushioning  and  the  way  in 
which  a  timber  is  placed  between  each  row  of  coils.  This 
timber  has  been  padded  at  top  and  bottom  with  heavy 
felt.  It  is  separated  at  the  ends  by  a  block  so  that  all  of 
the  several  courses  of  coils  are  held  in  place  by  the  clamp- 
ing arrangement,  although  each  row  or  course  is  self- 
sustaining.  Photographs  No.  23,  page  88,  and  No.  24, 
page  93,  show  how  a  bed  has  been  prepared  from  timber 
shaped  out  to  the  arc  of  the  armature  body  and  of  a  width 
to  engage  the  body  of  the  armature.  This  is  covered  with 
excelsior  and  afterward  with  oilcloth.  A  similar  bed  or 
cradle  is  to  be  noted  in  photograph  No.  27,  page  94. 
which  has  been  shaped  out,  covered  with  excelsior  as  a 
padding  and  then  with  a  piece  of  oilcloth  case  lining.  A 
different  and  unique  as  well  as  ingenious  method  of  pack- 
ing fragile  goods  for  protection  against  shocks  is  illus- 
trated in  photograph  No.  29,  page  100.  It  will  be  noted 
that  the  X-ray  tube  here  shown  is  suspended  in  cotton 
ticking  ribbons  which  are  drawn  up  so  as  to  engage  the 
sides  of  the  crate,  introducing  additional  spring  or  shock 


99 


PRACTICAL  NOTES  ON  EXPORT  miBF-I^Q^^^lOl: 

absorbing  qualities,  these  sides  being  made  of  about  %- 
inch,  lumber.  As  evidence  of  the  success  of  this  packing, 
it  may  be  said  that  about  4,000  of  these  X-ray  tubes  were 
shipped  overseas  during  the  last  year  of  the  World  War 
with  resulting  breakage  amounting  to  only  about  one- 
tenth  of  1  per  cent. 

Partitions  Inside  Cases. — Cross  partitioning  is  a  fea- 
ture which  provides  protection  to  the  contents  of  cases. 
These  partitions  can  be  either  lateral  or  longitudinal  and 
should  be  fixed  in  position  by  nailing,  either  through  the 
sides  or  the  ends  of  the  case.  This  method  prevents  the 
contents  of  the  case  from  surging,  for  when  the  case  gets 
a  severe  jar  on  one  end,  cross  partitions  prevent  the  blow 
imparted  by  the  whole  weight  of  the  contents  being  de- 
livered to  the  articles  at  the  bottom.  Partitions  also  add 
strength  and  rigidity  to  the  case. 

A  good  example  of  the  commonest  way  in  which  par- 
titions may  be  used  in  export  packing  cases  is  to  be  noted 
in  photograph  No.  31,  page  100,  which  shows  the  packing 
of  a  transformer  lead  made  of  porcelain  and  metal,  the 
metal  section  being  a  sleeve  shown  between  partitions 
A  and  B.  The  balance  of  the  lead  is  made  up  of  sections 
of  porcelain  fastened  together  by  cement.  The  section 
from  partition  C  to  the  end  of  the  case  is  a  glass  globe 
or  oil  indicator,  the  center  of  this  lead  being  filled  with 
oil.  This  lead  weighs  about  700  pounds  net.  It  could  not 
be  handled  in  a  horizontal  position  .without  protection, 
for  otherwise  it  would  break  of  its  own  weight.  Parti- 
tions A,  B  and  C  are  fastened  against  a  metal  shoulder 
which  prevents  the  lead  from  moving.  Other  forms  of 
packing  to  guard  against  the  shifting  of  machines  inside 
of  cases  are  to  be  noted  in  many  of  the  accompanying 
photographs.  Note,  for  example,  in  No.  1,  page  11, 
that  in  addition  to  bolting  the  machine  to  the  skid, 
it  is  blocked  both  longitudinally  and  laterally  so  as  to  re- 
lieve from  a  shearing  strain  the  bolts  holding  the  machine 
to  the  skid.  Similar  protection  is  notable  in  photograph 
No.  8,  page  22,  in  which  attention  may  be  drawn  to 
the  fact  that  the  shaft  is  blocked  at  the  end,  the  block 


•>.:1P?C:  .•".'::;■    :  ■.-.f^XPORT  PACKING 

being  fastened  through  the  outside  of  the  box.  In  pho- 
tograph No.  18,  page  52,  attention  is  called  to  the  five 
sets  of  braces  equally  spaced  around  the  piece,  engaging 
the  piece  at  the  center  where  it  is  strongest  and  extend- 
ing to  each  side  of  the  case.  This  will  be  securely  nailed 
through  the  side  of  the  case  in  order  to  provide  a  support 
for  the  piece,  and  prevent  the  throwing  of  severe  lever- 
age on  the  bolts  which  fasten  the  load  to  the  skid,  in  the 
event  that  the  case  happens  to  be  turned  on  its  side  during 
transportation.  Photograph  No.  24,  page  93,  shows  an 
armature  clamped  in  place  and  wedged  at  each  end.  Very 
valuable  hints  are  to  be  found  in  photograph  No.  27, 
page  94.  If  should  be  noted  that  in  addition  to  the  cradle 
which  supports  the  body  of  the  field,  bearings  are  also 
provided  under  the  shaft  on  each  side  close  to  the  field 
and  a  further  bearing  is  provided  at  the  end  of  the  ex- 
tended shaft,  which  is  simply  a  balancing  bearing  and 
carries  no  weight.  The  blocking  on  each  side  of  the  field, 
providing  the  bearings,  is  held  in  position  by  angular 
braces  on  the  outside  and,  being  wedged  on  the  inside 
between  the  field  body  and  this  blocking,  makes  the  entire 
container  and  its  contents  a  solid  mass  and  prevents  any 
movement  of  the  field  in  the  container.  Attention  is 
called  to  the  character  of  these  angular  braces  on  the  out- 
side. They  are  let  into  the  skid  at  the  toe  and  at  the  other 
end  support  the  wall  of  the  cribbing  and  the  timber,  pro- 
viding the  bearing  for  the  shaft,  with  crow  foot  construc- 
tion. These  are  securely  nailed  at  the  ends  but  since  this 
photograph  was  taken  the  experience  of  the  manufac- 
turer has  shown  that  it  is  necessary  further  to  fasten 
these  braces  and  this  has  been  accomplished  by  scabbing 
the  toe  to  the  skid.  The  scab  consists  of  a  one  inch  or 
one  and  a  quarter  inch  board  nailed  over  the  joint  which 
engages  the  brace  and  the  skid. 

Floating  Fragile  Material. — Delicate  apparatus  can 
often  to  advantage  be  packed  in  a  lightly  constructed  case 
and  this  case  ** floated'*  in  excelsior  or  other  packing 
material  inside  of  an  outer  case.  This  very  effective 
cushion  of  excelsior  between  the  inner  and  the  outer  case 


PRACTICAL  NOTES  ON  EXPORT  SHIPPING    103 

should  be  made  of  a  thickness  to  correspond  with  the 
nature  and  weight  of  the  contents. 

An  illustration  of  how  fragile  materials  may  be  care- 
fully packed  in  a  case  which  is  then  *^ floated*^  inside  of 
an  outside  container,  should  be  carefully  studied.  In 
photograph  No.  32,  page  105,  the  manner  in  which  the 
contents  of  the  inner  case  is  protected  from  shifting  has 
already  been  described  under  ^  *  partitions. '  *  This  case 
is  enclosed  in  an  outer  case  as  shown  in  the  photograph 
with  a  cushion  of  excelsior  about  5  inches  thick  on  all 
sides,  ends,  top  and  bottom.  Other  ways  in  which  fragile 
goods  receive  adequate  packing  are  illustrated  in  photo- 
graph No.  29,  page  100,  which  so  far  as  the  cotton  ticking 
ribbon  supports  are  concerned  has  been  already  described 
under  the  heading  of  ** shock  absorbers.''  It  is  further 
notable  (see  also  photograph  No.  30,  page  100),  that  the 
crate  is  of  very  light  construction  so  that  any  jar  im- 
parted by  handling  would  be  more  like  the  blow  of  a  tack 
hammer  than  the  blow  of  a  sledge  hammer,  as  it  might 
be  in  case  the  crate  were  made  of  heavier  lumber  and  the 
weight  increased.  A  point  to  be  carefully  observed  in 
the  packing  of  apparatus  of  this  character  is  to  make  the 
case  as  light  as  possible  consistent  with  the  safe  carrying 
of  the  apparatus. 

No  Loose  Small  Parts. — Wrenches,  accessories,  other 
tools  or  small  parts  are  often  enclosed  in  the  case  with  a 
machine.  These,  however,  should  always  be  securely  fas- 
tened, because  they  are  likely  to  do  severe  damage  due 
to  their  movement  inside  the  case  during  transportation 
and  handling. 

The  best  method  is  to  place  these  small  parts  in  a 
box  and  then  to  have  the  box,  not  only  nailed,  but  also 
fastened  by  band  iron  to  the  skid  or  the  inside  of  the 
box.  Heavy  boxes  should  be  both  spiked  and  strapped  to 
the  skid.  The  lighter  boxes  should  be  nailed  and  strapped 
to  the  sides,  end  or  top. 

The  accompanying  photographs.  No.  34,  page  106, 
and  No.  36,  page  111,  illustrate  in  a  general  way  the 
fashion  in  which  parts  may  be  packed  in  cases  contain- 


104  EXPORT  PACKING 

ing  the  main  apparatus.  This  shipment  consists  of  a 
36  inch  searchlight  mounted  on  a  Ford  chassis.  It  was 
necessary  to  forward  the  outfit  as  ne.arly  as  possible 
in  completely  assembled  condition,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  cost  of  space  on  cargo  ships  was  so  high  that 
it  was  very  important  to  minimize  the  cubical  dimensions 
of  the  shipment.  The  wheels  were  therefore  removed 
from  the  chassis  and  the  projector  was  mounted  on  a  skid. 
The  wheels  were  fastened  on  the  inside  of  the  case  as 
shown  and  the  accessories  were  packed  in  separate  boxes, 
etc.,  and  arranged  on  the  interior  of  the  general  packing 
case  in  the  fashion  illustrated.  The  one  case  therefore 
contained  the  complete  outfit.  Attention  is  also  drawn 
to  photograph  No.  15,  page  42,  in  which  the  box  con- 
taining sundries  will  be  noticed  firmly  attached  inside  the 
general  packing  case. 

Battens. — Battens  on  cases  are  highly  desirable,  par- 
ticularly if  the  case  contains  a  heavy  load.  No  end  bat- 
tens should  be  less  than  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
thickness  and  two  inches  in  width.  For  heavy  loads  and 
where  rough  handling  is  to  be  expected,  it  has  been  found 
well  to  provide  four  mitred  end  battens. 

Banding  Iron. — In  order  to  protect  the  nailing  of  the 
case,  no  case  should  ever  be  forwarded  for  export  unless 
it  is  provided  with  end  battens  and  banded  with  rust- 
proof band  iron.  The  band  iron,  if  of  proper  quality  and 
properly  put  on,  will  arrest  many  shocks  which  otherwise 
would  be  imparted  to  the  nailing  of  the  box.  Therefore, 
the  band  iron  should  not  be  put  on  directly  over  the  nails 
if  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained ;  but  back  from  the 
nailing  in  the  direction  of  the  center  of  the  box,  up  to  a 
distance  of  six  inches  from  the  nailing  on  large  cases. 
The  exact  distance  should  be  determined  by  the  condi- 
tions that  will  admit  of  proper  nailing  of  the  band  iron. 
These  nails  should  be  from  four  to  six  inches  apart,  but 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  drive  the  nails  through  the 
case  at  points  where  they  may  damage  the  contents.  All 
of  our  banding  iron  is  enameled  so  as  to  make  it  proof 
against  rust,  and  we  make  it  a  practice  of  banding  all  of 


105 


iiWIIIIIII  irnll      'I        ;«?»%;<»-;: 


106 


PRACTICAL  NOTES  ON  EXPORT  SHIPPING    107 

our  export  cases,  both  large  and  small,  heavy  and  light. 
More  on  the  subject  of  '* Banding  Iron"  will  be  found 
under  the  heading  of  '* Skidding."  What  is  true  of 
fairly  light  cases  is  also  true  of  skidded  cases — they  both 
need  band  iron.  These  bands  are  drawn  tightly — as 
tight  as  a  fiddle  string — and  they  are  well  nailed. 

But  to  improperly  band  a  case  is  worse  than  not  band- 
ing it  at  all.  The  band  iron  soon  arranges  itself  in  fes- 
toons or  loops,  if  not  properly  tightened  and  fastened. 
These  loops  catch  on  and  damage  other  cases.  They  also 
make  a  convenient  loop  for  the  stevedores*  hooks  and 
hence  the  damage  is  cumulative.  In  many  other  ways, 
loose  band  iron  promotes  rough  usage  and  creates  addi- 
tional hazards. 

Unannealed  band  iron  is  superior  to  the  annealed. 
The  former  can  be  easily  nailed  through,  it  is  much 
stronger  and  it  will  not  stretch  as  will  the  annealed.  The 
band  iron  on  a  case  performs  its  real  function  when  the 
case  is  subjected  to  a  severe  strain  by  shock  or  great 
pressure ;  so  it  will  be  seen  that  as  the  band  iron  stretches 
upon  those  occasions,  it  will  not  protect  the  nailing  of  the 
case  as  it  should. 

Abandoned  Wire  for  Cases. — In  past  years  we  used 
braided,  twisted,  single  and  double  strand  round  wire  for 
banding  large  cases.  However,  we  have  ceased  to  use  this 
method  as  it  was  found  to  fall  short  of  the  requirements 
for  strengthening  cases.  For  some  small  cases  contain- 
ing light  loads  we  still  use  some  **wire  bound"  boxes 
which  are  satisfactory  when  strengthened  by  additional 
nailing. 

Markings. — A  feature  of  the  greatest  importance  in 
marking  cases  is  the  quality  of  the  marking  fluid.  This 
fluid  should  be  indelible  and  of  a  character  that  can  not 
be  easily  removed  or  blurred  by  rubbing.  The  containers 
must  often  stand  next  to  a  bale  of  cotton  cloth,  which 
due  to  vibration  may  erase  the  markings  in  transit. 

In  addition  to  being  indelible  and  difficult  to  remove, 
the  fluid  should  be  quick  drying  so  that  the  cases  or  bales 
can  be  handled  soon  after  without  risk  to  the  marking. 


108  EXPORT  PACKING 

All  sMpments  should  be  marked  with  stencil,  the  size 
of  letters  corresponding  to  the  size  of  the  container. 
Where  possible  the  container  should  be  marked  with  a 
case  number  and  the  shipping  address  on  two  sides.  On 
the  sides  of  the  case  bearing  the  address,  there  should  be 
no  other  markings  except  the  number  of  the  case.  How- 
ever, in  very  large  cases  which  must  be  handled  with  lift- 
ing devices,  it  is  permissible  to  show  slinging  positions 
and  the  center  of  gravity  by  center  lines.  Elsewhere  on 
the  case — preferably  on  the  ends — may  be  shown  the 
gross  weight,  the  net  weight,  the  measurements  of  the 
case,  and  other  marks  such  as  may  be  required.  The  case 
number  should  always  be  preceded  by  the  words  **Case 
number. '*  The  case  number  and  the  port  marking  should 
always  be  made  to  stand  out  boldly  in  larger  figures  and 
letters. 

Numerous  photographs  are  reproduced  in  connection 
with  this  chapter,  showing  desirable  ways  of  marking 
cases.  Photograph  No.  19,  page  87,  illustrates  marking 
on  cases  to  call  attention  to  the  points  where  the  sling 
cables  should  be  applied.  The  shipping  marks  on  this 
case  appear  on  two  sides  and  no  other  marks  excepting 
the  case  number  and  the  handling  marks  appear  on  the 
sides.  Marking  on  the  case  shown  in  photograph  No.  38, 
page  111,  also  indicates  points  where  the  slings  are  to  be 
placed.  Also  note  marking  at  top  of  case  in  French, 
English  and  Spanish  with  arrow  indicating  the  top.  It 
will  be  noted  in  photograph  No.  33,  page  105,  that  this 
case  has  been  marked  in  several  places  *  ^  porcelain ' '  and 
**fragile.''  This  evidently  was  done  by  the  packing  men 
from  force  of  habit  in  marking  domestic  shipments.  For 
export  such  markings  as  '*  porcelain,'*  * 'fragile," 
'* handle  with  care''  are  practically  of  no  use  in  providing 
any  help  in  the  way  of  notice  to  stevedores  as  to  the  na- 
ture of  contents.  In  loading  and  discharging  ships  no 
time  is  taken  to  read  such  notices  and  at  many  ports  to 
which  shipments  are  forwarded  such  marking  would  not 
be  understood. 

Branding. — ^With  a  real  indelible  fluid  it  is  unneces- 


PRACTICAL  NOTES  ON  EXPORT  SHIPPING    109 

sary  to  brand  the  cases  with  a  branding  iron;  however, 
metal  dies  are  used  to  accomplish  practically  the  same 
result  as  branding  and  at  the  same  time  eliminate  the  fire 
risk.  These  dies  may  be  procured  in  diilferent  sizes  to 
correspond  with  the  sizes  of  the  cases  to  be  marked.  They 
have  a  sharp  edge  which  is  coated  with  marking  ink  by 
saturating  a  piece  of  felt  with  the  ink  and  working  the 
die  into  it  by  hand.  After  being  coated  with  ink  the  die 
is  driven  into  the  wood  of  the  box  by  a  hammer.  This' 
has  been  found  equal  to  branding,  and  quicker,  cheaper 
and  safer. 

Marks  on  the  cases  such  as  *' Fragile,''  *^ Glass," 
** Handle  with  care,''  *^This  side  up,"  etc.,  etc.,  are  of 
practically  no  avail  in  procuring  special  service  or  special 
care  in  handling  the  material.  The  materials  must  be  so 
packed  that  the  container  riding  in  any  position  will  with- 
stand the  maximum  hazards  of  export  transportation. 

Skidding. — The  strength  of  the  skid  lies  entirely  with- 
in the  skid  itself  and  receives  very  little  additional 
strength  from  the  container.  In  figuring  the  strength  of 
the  skid  the  packer  should  entirely  ignore  the  container. 
A  container  built  up  on  a  weak  skid  is  like  a  building  on 
a  faulty  foundation.  A  chain  is  only  as  strong  as  its 
weakest  link  and  a  container  is  only  as  strong  as  the  skids 
which  form  its  backbone.  While  the  container  adds  prac- 
tically no  strength  to  the  skids,  yet  if  the  skids  are  broken 
it  racks  and  wrecks  the  entire  container  as  well  as  the 
apparatus  being  shipped.  Or  if  the  skids  should  spring 
or  bend,  the  entire  case  will  probably  be  destroyed.  The 
skid  is  the  strategic  point  of  the  container.  It  is  a  curious 
thing  how  the  same  human  being  who  hesitates  to  put  a 
few  more  inches  of  lumber  in  the  skids  where  it  is  abso- 
lutely essential,  is  likely  to  lavish  lumber  on  the  balance 
of  the  container.  Lumber  put  in  the  skids  is  a  factor  of 
safety — it  is  container  insurance. 

How  Skids  Break. — Whenever  a  container  is  lifted 
from  one  end  or  from  one  corner,  the  skid  is  likely  to 
break  or  spring  and  ruin  the  container.  Whenever  the 
container  is  rested  on  one  roller,  in  the  middle  or  on  two 


110  EXPORT  PACKING 

rollers,  one  at  either  end,  the  skid  is  likely  to  break  or 
spring.  Instances  have  even  been  known  where  skids 
have  broken  or  sprung  because  the  container  was  merely 
laid  down  upon  an  uneven  surface. 

Containers  are  frequently  broken,  due  to  damaged 
skids  resulting  from  the  apparatus  being  improperly 
bolted  to  the  skid.  We  make  it  a  rule  to  have  no  square 
bolt  heads  projecting  beyond  the  lower  surface  of  the 
skids.  The  bolt  holes  should  be  countersunk  and  the  bolt 
put  in  from  the  bottom  so  that  the  square  head  will  not 
project  and  interfere  with  the  passage  of  the  skid  over 
the  rollers.  Round  headed  bolts  are  also  desirable  for 
this  reason.  In  either  case  the  bolt  should  project  through 
the  apparatus  and  have  the  nut  at  the  top.  Sometimes 
wood  clamps  are  used  for  fastening  containers  to  skids, 
but  they  should  be  of  hard  wood  and  strong. 

Containers  should  be  so  built  that  they  will  not  be 
racked  if  the  stevedores  make  their  donkey  sling-hitch 
at  a  point  above  the  skids.  Therefore,  the  sides,  ends  and 
top  should  be  strong,  and  unless  they  are  reenforced  by 
cribbing  or  bracing  of  contents,  the  high  hitching  will 
likely  damage  them. 

But  the  skidding  is  important  for  still  other  reasons. 
Not  only  must  the  entire  container  be  of  sufficient 
strength  to  withstand  the  various  shocks  of  transporta- 
tion, but  it  must  be  able  to  stand  up  under  the  strain  of 
cargo  storage  while  in  the  hold  of  the  ship. 

In  the  accompanying  photograph  No.  17,  page  51, 
it  will  be  noted  that  there  are  three  bearings  for  the  piece, 
one  at  each  end  and  one  in  the  center,  this  center  bearing 
also  preventing  the  bending  or  breaking  of  the  skids  in 
the  event  of  its  being  moved  by  rollers  or  resting  on  an 
uneven  surface. 

Fine  Points  in  Case  Construction. — Where  the  con- 
tents of  a  skidded  container  is  of  such  a  character  that 
it  may  be  injured  by  racking  due  to  pressure  at  the  top, 
there  should  be  provided  supporting  posts  from  skid  to 
underside  of  cover,  securely  nailed  through  casing. 

The  ends  of  the  case  should  rest  on  the  skids  and  be 


xu 


Courtesy  of  General  Elentrio  Co. 
(37)    Complete  Projector  in  Case. 
Note  how  searchlight  and  acceaaories  are  made  a  compact  mass. 


112 


PRACTICAL  NOTES  ON  EXPORT  SHIPPING   113 

nailed  to  the  binder  or  cross  tie.  The  sides  of  the  case, 
however,  require  different  treatment  for  the  best  results. 
Although  the  inside  or  horizontal  course  should  rest  on 
the  skid,  the  outer  or  vertical  course  should  be  longer, 
thus  it  can  be  made  to  overlap  the  skid  and  extend  down* 
almost  but  not  quite,  to  the  bottom  of  the  skid.  But 
there  is  another  reason  which  is  not  so  apparent,  and 
that  is  it  enables  the  container  better  to  resist  compres- 
sion of  a  heavy  cargo  placed  on  top.  These  side  boards 
are  brought  down  within  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  the 
bottom  of  the  skid  so  that  when  the  strain  of  the  weight 
of  storage  is  imposed,  the  strength  of  the  box  need  not 
depend  entirely  on  the  strength  of  the  holding  power  of 
the  nails ;  for,  as  the  nails  give  or  bend  a  little,  this  form 
of  construction  allows  these  vertical  side  boards  to  take 
up  the  load.  The  heavy  weight  on  top  of  the  case  and 
the  resulting  slight  giving  of  the  nails  permit  the  sides 
of  the  case  to  come  to  rest  on  practically  the  same  level 
as  the  bottom  of  the  skid;  thus  the  container  is  saved 
from  collapse.  A  distance  of  one  quarter  to  three 
eighths  of  an  inch  has  been  found  sufficient  as  a  clear- 
ance between  the  bottom  of  the  skid  and  the  bottom  of 
the  vertical  boards,  which  compose  the  outer  course  of 
the  sides  of  the  case.  But  these  side  boards  should  not 
be  so  long  as  to  interfere  with  rollers,  and  should  be  kept 
above  the  bottom  of  the  skid  for  the  same  reason  that  the 
square  heads  of  the  bolts  are  not  allowed  to  project 
downward. 

Don't  Use  Lag  Screws. — In  the  construction  of  skids, 
do  not  use  lag  screws  and  in  fastening  apparatus  or  other 
articles  to  skids,  do  not  use  lag  screws.  Also  in  fastening 
the  bracings  in  all  shipping  and  packing  work,  do  not 
use  lag  screws  but  use  bolts.  Even  nailing  is  preferable 
to  lag  screws,  as  it  is  most  difficult  to  draw  a  lag  screw 
^*home''  without  overdoing  it.  A  single  turn  or  even  a 
part  of  a  turn  on  a  lag  screw  after  being  properly  set, 
practically  destroys  its  holding  power. 

Slinging.— Wherever  possible,  large  cases  or  pieces 
which  must  be  handled  with  lifting  devices,  should  have 


114  EXPORT  PACKING 

provision  made  for  slinging.  When  the  horizontal 
center  of  gravity  of  container  is  off  the  center  of  meas- 
urements, we  provide  slots  in  the  skids  and  mark  the 
cases  at  those  points  ** Sling  here.'*  In  addition  we  pro- 
vide a  center  line  on  each  side  of  the  case  indicating  the 
center  of  gravity  and  so  stencil  it  on  the  case. 

In  photograph  No.  1,  page  11,  it  will  be  noticed  that 
the  skids  are  slotted  at  each  end.  This  is  for  the  slinging. 
The  same  feature  will  be  observed  in  numerous  others 
of  the  accompanying  illustrations.  Another  way  of  pro- 
viding for  the  use  of  slings  is  illustrated  in  photograph 
No.  25,  page  93.-  However,  since  this  photograph  was 
taken  an  improvement  has  been  made  over  this  method. 
The  horns  or  extensions  which  are  shown  in  the  photo- 
graph as  engaging  the  slings  are  cut  off  and  the  under- 
side of  the  skid  is  slotted  for  slinging.  This  reduces  the 
cost  of  shipping  to  the  extent  of  the  measurement  of  the 
horns  previously  used  since,  of  course,  steamship  com- 
panies figure  cubic  measurements  over  all  extreme  dimen- 
sions. In  photograph  No.  27,  page  94,  especially  care- 
ful attention  should  be  directed  to  the  location  of  the  slots 
in  the  skids  which  are  cut  out  for  slinging  the  apparatus, 
the  center  of  gravity  being  midway  between  the  two  slots. 

The  strings  which  are  shown  in  one  of  the  photo- 
graphs. No.  23,  page  88,  are  placed  under  the  bearings  in 
the  process  of  packing  rotating  elements  for  electrical 
apparatus  and  are  for  testing  application  of  weight 
applied  to  the  several  bearings  in  order  that  we  may 
determine  whether  the  strain  as  imparted  by  the  load 
going  into  the  container  is  being  equally  distributed  to  the 
three  bearing  points. 

The  cribbing  made  to  take  the  shaft  bearings  is  a 
solid  wood  mass  built  so  as  to  engage  this  shaft.  Now 
before  placing  the  load  into  the  carrier  or  container, 
these  strings  are  placed  under  each  of  the  three  bearings 
and  as  the  load  is  lowered  into  the  container,  by  the 
tension  applied  to  these  strings  we  are  able  to  detect 
the  equalization  of  pressure  between  the  three  points 
of  bearings. 


CHAPTER  V 

OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS-EXPERT 
INSTRUCTIONS 

TREMENDOUS  progress  in  the  science  of  export 
packing  was  made  during  the  course  of  the  World 
War,  and  the  lessons  to  be  derived  from  the  exact 
and  specific  instructions  issued  by  the  War  Department 
of  the  United  States  Government  are  certain  to  ensure 
a  marked  improvement  in  the  packing  practices  of  man- 
ufacturers and  shippers  in  general.  Probably  in  no  other 
country  has  the  export  packing  problem  been  attacked  so 
scientifically  and  in  so  thoroughgoing  a  fashion  as  in 
the  United  States,  where  national  needs  from  the  outset 
of  the  war  brought  officials  face  to  face  with  problems  of 
overseas  shipping  which  were  not  encountered  by  other 
nations.  The  results  of  official  study,  painstaking  inves- 
tigations and  comparison,  the  researches  of  the  Forest 
Products  Laboratory,  plus  the  ingenious  inventions  of 
men  called  into  the  service  of  the  army  in  devising  the 
best  possible  packing  methods — these  all  resulted  in  the 
publication  of  official  specifications  by  the  War  Depart- 
ment and  in  a  great  deal  of  consequent  and  subsequent 
literature,  based  on  these  experiences  and  researches, 
which  it  is  believed  ought  to  be  preserved  in  permanent 
fashion.  Important  excerpts  are  here  included,  with  the 
conviction  that  the  matter  reprinted  in  this  chapter  will 
be  found  vital  by  every  manufacturer  or  shipper  dis- 
posed to  give  serious  attention  to  this  most  important 
problem. 

Certain  duplications  have  been  omitted  from  the  of- 
ficial specifications  reprinted  in  this  chapter  because  iden- 
tical advices  or  instructions  appear  in  other  chapters.  It 
is  none  the  less  quite  natural  that  there  should  be  some 
repetitions  of  observations  and  instructions  both  among 

115 


116  EXPORT  PACKING 

the  documents  themselves,  which  are  now  reprinted,  and 
in  the  several  other  chapters  of  this  book.  It  has  been 
thought  desirable  to  include  many  such  repetitions,  not 
only  because  sometimes  involving  slight  variations  in 
phraseology,  but  also  because  many  of  the  problems  dealt 
with  merit  repeated  emphasis. 

The  documents  which  follow  include  extracts  from  the 
War  Department  specifications  on  making  boxes  and 
packing  in  boxes;  a  pamphlet  on  the  same  subject  by 
Capt.  Knowlton,  issued  by  the  Saf epack  Mills ;  the  War 
Department  specifications  on  the  making  of  crates,  on 
baling  and  on  marking ;  an  article  from  *  *  The  Barrel  and 
Box''  on  the  nailing  of  boxes;  technical  notes  from  the 
Forest  Products  Laboratory,  etc. 

Standakd  Boxing  Specifications  of  the 
War  Department 

Nailed  and  locked  corner  boxes  must  be  well  manu- 
factured from  lumber  which  is  sound  (free  from  decay 
and  dote)  and  well  seasoned.  Lumber  must  be  free  from 
knot  holes  and  from  loose  or  rotten  knots  greater  than 
one  inch  in  diameter.  Knots  whose  diameter  exceed  one- 
third  the  width  of  the  board  will  not  be  permitted,  and  no 
knots  will  be  permitted  which  interfere  with  the  proper 
nailing  of  the  box. 

For  these  specifications,  well-seasoned  lumber  has  an 
average  moisture  content  of  12  to  18  per  cent  based  on 
the  weight  of  the  wood  after  oven  drying.  To  determine 
this  moisture  content  weigh  a  piece  of  material  before 
and  after  oven  drying  to  a  constant  weight,  dry  at  100° 
C.  (212°  F.),  and  divide  the  difference  in  weights  by  the 
lesser  X  100. 

Width  of  Lumber. — (a)  Any  end,  side,  top,  or  bottom 
6  inches  or  less  in  width  should  be  one-piece  stock. 

(b)  No  piece  less  than  21/2  inches  face  width  shall  be 
used  in  any  part,  except  for  cleats. 

(c)  The  maximum  number  of  pieces  allowed  in  any 
end,  side,  top,  or  bottom  more  than  6  inches  wide  should 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS  117 

be  as  follows  (narrow  pieces  should  always  be  placed 
in  the  center  of  the  ends,  sides,  top,  or  bottom) : 

Maximum  number 
Width  of  face  of  pieces 

Six  inches  and  under 1 

Over  6-10  inches,  inclusive 2 

Over  10-15  inches,  inclusive 3 

Over  15-20  inches,  inclusive '. . . .  4 

Over  20-25  inches,  inclusive 5 

Over  25  inches 6 

Surfacing. — All  material  must  be  surfaced  one  or  two 
sides.  When  surfaced  one  side  the  surfaced  side  shall 
be  the  outside. 

Joining. — Ends  1  inch  or  less  in  thickness  should  be 
either  cleated  or  butt  joined  and  fastened  with  not  less 
than  three  corrugated  fasteners,  two  driven  from  one  side 
and  one  from  the  opposite  side.  Cleats  should  be  not 
less  than  2  inches  wide  and  should  have  a  minimum  thick- 
ness of  five-eighths  inch.  Triangular  cleats  of  not  less 
than  three-fourths  inch  face  measurement  are  permitted. 

Nails. — All  nails  should  be  standard  cement  coated 
box  nails.  Plain  nails  driven  through  and  clinched  may 
be  used  for  cleating. 

The  size  of  the  nail  shall  depend  upon  the  species  and 
the  thickness  of  the  lumber  in  which  the  points  of  the 
nails  are  held. 

When  the  nail  specified  for  use  under  these  specifica- 
tions is  not  obtainable,  use  the  next  penny  lower,  and 
increase  the  number  of  nails  in  each  nailing  edge  by  one. 

^  Metal  Bindings. — All  packing  boxes  for  over-seas 
service  must  be  strap  ironed.  Strapping  shall  be  cold 
rolled  unannealed  steel  not  less  than  five-eighths  inch 
wide  by  0.015  thick,  treated  to  prevent  rust,  and  shall 
have  a  tensile  strength  of^not  less  than  850  pounds.  The 
treatment  must  be  of  a  character  to  prevent  injury  to 
strapping  when  bent  or  nailed. 

Strapping  placed  at  least  1  inch  from  each  end  is 
preferred,  with  double  corner  nails  and  such  additional 
nails  or  staples  holding  straps  to  sides,  top,  and  bottom 

*See  Capt.  Knowlton's  observation  and  recommendations  under  thig 
head,  Chapter  III. 


:port  packing 

as  well  minimizing  festooning  nails  or  staples  spaced 
about  6  inches  apart. 

Strapping  must  be  drawn  tight  by  mechanical  means 
in  order  to  have  the  maximum  of  tension. 

Standard  Specifications  for  Wire-bound  Boxes 

Boxes  must  be  well  manufactured  from  lumber  which 
is  sound  (free  from  decay  and  dote)  and  well  seasoned. 
Lumber  kiln  dried  at  excessively  high  temperature  or 
low  humidities  or  below  6  per  cent  moisture,  must  be 
avoided.  Material  must  be  free  from  knot  holes  and 
from  loose  or  rotten  knots  greater  than  1  inch  in  diame- 
ter. No  knots  will  be  permitted  which  interfere  with  the 
proper  nailing  or  stapling. 

Cleats. — Cleat  material  must  be  free  from  knots  and 
cross  grain.  Cleats  must  not  be  less  than  three-fourths 
inch  wide,  seven-eighths  inch  thick. 

Wires.— Wires  shall  not  be  less  than  No.  14  gauge  nor 
spaced  more  than  6  inches  apart. 

Staples. — Staples  shall  be  spaced  not  more  than  2 
inches  apart  over  each  wire.  Staples  which  are  not 
driven  into  cleats  must  be  clinched. 

Ends. —  On  boxes  not  to  exceed  20  x  15  x  10  inches  in- 
side measurement  and  carrying  not  to  exceed  90  pounds 
the  ends  may  be  the  same  thickness  as  the  sheet  material, 
and  should  be  nailed  or  stapled  on  the  inside  of  the  cleats. 
Nails  and  staples  shall  be  spaced  approximately  2  inches 
apart.  On  larger  boxes  of  heavier  weights  the  ends  shall 
be  nailed  to  battens  or  to  sohd  ends  set  between  the 
cleats.  A  seven-penny  nail  must  be  driven  through  cleat 
into  each  end  of  each  batten. 

Number  of  Pieces. — Sides  and  tops  shall  be  one-piece 
stock,  and  bottom  one,  or  two-piece  stock  if  made  of 
rotary-cut  lumber  not  less  than  one-fourth  inch  thick.  If 
two-piece  sides  and  tops  and  three-piece  bottoms  are 
used,  material  must  be  at  least  one  thirty-second  inch 
heavier  than  one-piece  stock,  or  wires  spaced  not  more 
than  5  inches  apart. 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS  119 

When  resawed  material  is  used  in  sides,  tops,  and 
bottoms  it  shall  be  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  thicker  than 
the  rotary-cut  lumber  specified  for  one-piece  stock. 

Limitations. — There  are  limitations  as  to  sizes, 
weights,  and  commodities  that  can  be  packed  in  wire- 
bound  boxes.  These  limitations,  however,  can  not  be 
definitely  fixed  in  any  general  specifications. 

Standard  Specification  of  the  War  Department 
FOR  Export  Packing  in  Boxes 

Paper  Lining. — Boxes  shall  be  lined  with  waterproof 
case  lining  paper,  over  which  shall  be  placed  a  lining  of 
bogus  or  gray  rag  paper. 

(a)  Specifications  for  Waterproof  Case-Lining  Paper. 
— The  specifications  for  waterproof  case-lining  paper  are 
as  follows:  This  waterproof  case-lining  paper  shall  be 
made  of  two  layers  or  sheets  of  100  per  cent  sulphate 
kraft  paper,  each  layer  weighing  30  pounds  to  the  ream 
of  480  sheets,  basis  24  by  36  inches,  cemented  together 
with  not  more  than  30  pounds  average  weight  of  asphal- 
tum  to  the  ream.  The  basis  of  weight  for  the  finished 
paper  shall  be  90  pounds  to  the  ream  of  480  sheets,  basis 
24  by  36  inches,  with  an  allowable  variation  of  5  per  cent 
above  or  below  on  the  above  basis,  such  variation,  if  any, 
to  apply  either  to  the  paper  or  the  asphaltum.  The  paper 
must  be  thoroughly  Avaterproof,  so  that  a  receptacle  made 
of  a  single  piece  shall  hold  water  for  24  hours  without 
wetting  through.  The  strength  shall  be  not  less  than  60 
points  on  the  Mullen  tester. 

(h) Specifications  for  Bogus  or  Gray  Rag  Paper. — 
The  specifications  for  the  bogus  or  gray  rag  paper  are  as 
follows:  This  bogus  or  gray  rag  paper  shall  weigh 
90  pounds  to  the  ream  of  480  sheets,  basis  24  by  36  inches, 
and  the  strength  shall  be  not  less  than  15  points  on  the 
Mullen  tester. 

{c)  Method  of  Lining  Box  with  Waterproof  Case- 
Lining  Paper. — Boxes  shall  be  lined  with  waterproof 
case-lining  paper,  either  with  sheets  cut  to  the  size  re- 


120  EXPORT  PACKING 

quired  or  with  made-up  containers  or  case  liners  of  the 
correct  size.  If  sheets  cut  to  size  are  used,  boxes  shall  be 
lined  as  follows:  The  bottom,  sides,  and  top  of  the  box 
shall  be  lined  with  a  sheet  of  width  not  less  than  the  in- 
terior length  of  the  box,  plus  not  less  than  6  inches  for 
lapping  3  inches  around  corners  at  each  end  of  box,  and 
of  length  sufficient  to  cover  the  bottom,  sides,  and  top  of 
box,  and  lap  at  least  6  inches  on  the  top.  Each  end  of 
box  shall  be  lined  with  a  sheet  of  width  not  less  than  the 
interior  width  of  the  box,  plus  not  less  than  6  inches  for 
lapping  around  the  corners  3  inches  on  each  side,  and  of 
length  not  less  than  the  interior  depth  of  the  box  plus 
not  less  than  12  inches  for  lapping  6  inches  on  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  box.  Thus,  a  box  of  interior  dimen- 
sions, length  36  inches,  width  17%  inches,  depth  13 
inches,  shall  be  lined  as  follows :  Bottom,  sides,  and  top 
with  a  sheet  42  by  67  inches,  and  each  end  with  a  sheet 
231/2  by  25  inches. 

(d)  Method  of  Lining  Box  with  Bogus  or  Gray  Rag 
Paper. — The  bogus  or  gray  rag  paper  shall  be  so  placed 
in  the  box  that  the  waterproof  paper  lining  is  completely 
covered. 

Box  Strapping. — Boxes  shall  be  strapped  with  cold- 
rolled  unannealed  steel  band  treated  to  prevent  rust. 

{a)  Width  and  Gauge  of  Strapping. — The  width  and 
gauge  of  strapping  to  be  used  shall  depend  upon  the 
gross  weight  of  the  box.  On  boxes  up  to  250  pounds  gross 
weight  the  size  of  the  strapping  used  shall  be  either  % 
inch  wide  by  0.020  inch  thick,  or  %  inch  wide  by  0.015 
inch  thick,  ultimate  tensile  strength  not  less  than  1,000 
pounds.  On  boxes  over  250  pounds  gross  weight  to  and 
including  400  pounds  gross  weight,  the  size  of  strapping 
used  shall  be  either  %  inch  wide  by  0.020  inch  thick,  or 
1  inch  wide  by  0.015  inch  thick,  ultimate  tensile  strength 
not  less  than  1,200  pounds. 

{h)  Point  of  Application  of  Strapping. — All  boxes 
shall  be  strapped  on  each  end,  strapping  to  be  placed  not 
less  than  1  inch  nor  more  than  3  inches  from  inside  of 
ends  of  box.     Boxes  the  length  of  which  is  greatly  in 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS  121 

excess  of  the  width  or  depth  shall  have  one  or  more  addi- 
tional straps  spaced  equidistant  between  the  end  straps. 
.When  these  are  considered  necessary  they  will  be 
specified. 

(c)  Stretching  of  Strapping, — Strapping  must  be 
applied  with  some  kind  of  stretching  tool  before  nailing, 
so  that  it  will  be  tight  between  nails  and  will  not  bulge 
over  comers. 

(d)  Nailing  of  Strapping. — Strapping  shall  be  nailed 
on  as  follows:  Where  it  passes  over  the  corners  of  the 
box  it  shall  be  secured  by  two  four-penny  cement-coated 
nails — one  driven  through  the  strap  and  through  the  top 
or  bottom  boards  into  the  side  boards,  and  one  nail  driven 
through  the  strap. into  the  top  or  bottom  boards.  Between 
the  corners  of  the  box,  strapping  shall  be  secured  with 
nails  spaced  approximately  21/2  inches  apart,  and  at  least 
one  nail  shall  be  driven  through  the  strap  into  each  sep- 
arate board  of  side,  top  and  bottom.  When  the  thickness 
of  side,  top  and  bottom  is  %  inch,  use  i/2-iiich  flathead 
nails;  when  the  thickness  of  side,  top  and  bottom  is  % 
inch,  use  %-inch  flathead  nails.  When  strapping  1  inch 
wide  is  used,  the  nails  shall  be  staggered. 

(e)  Joints  of  Strapping. — Joints  of  strap  shall  lap 
at  least  5  inches,  and  shall  be  so  placed  that  the  end  of 
one  overlapping  piece  shall  be  on  the  top  of  the  box, 
approximately  21/0  inches  from  corner,  and  the  end  of  the 
other  overlapping  piece  on  the  side  of  the. box  approxi- 
mately 2y2  inches  from  same  corner.  Each  end  of  strap 
shall  be  secured  by  nail  driven  %  inch  from  end.  The 
correct  method  of  applying  strapping  is  shown  on  draw- 
ing 76-11-9,  with  latest  revisions,  furnished  upon  request. 

Style  of  Box. — Two  styles  of  boxes  shall  be  used : 

Style  A. — Having  two  cleats  on  each  end,  these  cleats 
being  vertical — i.  e.,  at  right  angles  to  grain  of  ends. 

Style  B. — Having  four  cleats  on  each  end. 

Style  _A  shall  be  used  when  the  weight  of  contents  is 
100  pounds  or  less,  or  whenever  the  depth  of  the  box  is 
less  than  12  inches. 

Style  B  shall  be  used  when  the  weight  of  contents 


122  EXPORT  PACKING 

exceeds  100  pounds  and  the  depth  of  box  is  12  inches 
or  more. 

Surfacing. — It  will  be  specified  in  each  case  whether 
box  boards  shall  be  SIS  or  S2S.i  When  SIS,  the  sur- 
faced side  shall  be  outside.  Surfacing  shall  be  well  done, 
and  no  injurious  sharp  splinters  or  rough  spots  shall 
appear  on  surfaced  boards. 

Considerable  economy  will  result  from  allowing 
%-inch  material  to  be  SIS,  since  two  thicknesses  can  be 
cut  from  nominal  lyo-inch  lumber,  while  %-inch  S2S 
sometimes  requires  1-inch  lumber  for  one  thickness. 

Joining. — All  joints  between  boards  shall  be  tongued 
and  grooved  or  Linderman  jointed.  When  tongued  and 
grooved,  boards  must  be  tight  matched.  When  Linder- 
man jointed,  the  dovetail  (or  dovetails  where  double 
Linderman  joint  is  used)  shall  be  situated  equidistant 
from  opposite  edges  of  the  board. 

Cleats. — Boxes  having  sides,  top,  bottom,  and  ends  of 
group  1  woods  may  have  cleats  of  any  of  the  species 
listed.    Group  2  woods  are  recommended  for  cleats. 

Boxes  having  sides,  top,  bottom  and -ends  of  group  2 
woods  shall  have  cleats  of  woods  of  same  group. 

Cleats  shall  be  2  inches  wide  and  of  the  same  thickness 
as  sides,  tops  and  bottoms. 

Nailing. — A — Cleats  to  Ends. — Cleats  shall  be  se- 
curely nailed  to  ends  with  nails  sufficiently  long  to  pass 
through  both  thicknesses  of  lumber  and  clinch.  At  least 
two  nails  shall  connect  each  piece  of  end  to  each  cleat. 
Nails  shall  be  placed  as  near  the  ends  of  cleats  as  pos- 
sible, without  splitting  cleats.  Intermediate  nails  shall 
be 'spaced  approximately  2  inches  along  the  length  of  the 
cleat.    These  nails  shall  be  staggered. 

B — Sides,  top  and  bottom  to  ends. — Nails  used  shall 
be  standard  cement-coated  box  nails. 

Proper  size  of  nails  depends  on  species  and  thickness 
of  lumber  holding  points  of  nails  after  driving. 

The  following  schedule  shall  apply : 

*  S2S  should  be  specified  when  contents  are  such  as  to  be  damaged  by 
abrasion  on  rough  boards. 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS 


123 


Classification 

of 

woods 

Thickness  of/ 

pieces  holding 

points  of 

nails  after 

driving 

Penny 

designation 

of  nail 

Length  of 
nails  to  be 
not  less 
than  — 

Average 
diameter  of 
head  to  be 

not  less 
than  — 

Group  1 

Group  2 

Group  2 

Inch 

d. 
8 
6 
6 

Inches 
We 

Inch 
% 

H 

Nails  may  be  as  slender  as  can  be  driven  without 
bending  or  breaking,  but  must  conform  to  the  above 
schedule  as  to  length.  The  head  of  the  nail  must  be 
heavy  enough  not  to  be  readily  broken. 

Spacing. — Nails  connecting  sides,  top,  and  bottoms  to 
ends  shall  be  spaced  as  uniformly  as  possible.  Spaces 
shall  average  not  to  exceed  2  inches.  On  edges  where 
cleats  are  used  approximately  50  per  cent  of  the  nails 
shall  be  driven  into  cleats.  Top  and  bottom  nails  of  sides 
shall  be  driven  into  cleats.  Each  piece  of  sides,  top  and 
bottom  shall  have  not  less  than  two  nails  at  each  end. 

C — Top  and  bottom  to  sides. — Sizes  of  nails  shall  be 
in  accordance  with  above  schedule.  Nails  shall  be  stand- 
ard cement  coated  box  nails. 

Nails  shall  be  spaced  at  approximately  6-inch  centers. 

When  box  boards  are  Linderman  jointed  the  require- 
ment for  two  nails  in  each  end  of  each  side,  top,  bottom, 
and  end  board  shall  not  apply. 

Sealing. — When  tops  and  bottoms  are  Linderman 
jointed  they  shall  be  considered  as  one  piece  and  two  seals 
only  (one  at  each  side)  shall  be  used. 

Screws  in  seal  holes  shall  be  1%  inches  by  No.  8. 

Screws  must  not  be  driven  by  hammer. 

Size  of  Box. — The  following  diagram  shows  a  list 
of  the  standard  boxes  of  various  sizes : 


124 


EXPORT  PACKING 


DIMENSIONS,  DISPLACEMENTS  AND  WEIGHTS  OF  STANDARD  BOXES 


Dimensions  of  Box 

X 

Approx- 

Displace- 

imate 

ment  of 

weight 

Interior 

Exterior 

box 

of  box 

H 

Group  1  woods, 

Group  2  woods. 

-g 

Xi 

ja 

■g 

1 

%-inch  lumber 

H-i 

ich  lumber 

•|j 

_c 

.? 

rt 

;?!■§ 

•n\  o 

„^_ 

:^ 

6 

1 
1 

1 

? 

.s 

.s 

? 
u 

a 

o 

a 

1 

.s 

1 

l1 

4-a 
o  ^ 

1 

a 

J 

^ 
^ 

•5 

1 

1 

sa 

1 

21.5 

8 

8 

24.5 

9.5 

9.5 

24 

9.25 

9.25 

2,211 

2,054 

14 

15 

2 

21 

9 

10 

24 

10.5 

11.5 

23.5 

10.25 

11.25 

2,898 

2,710 

16 

18 

3 

17 

11.5 

10 

20 

13 

11.5 

19.5 

12.75 

11.25 

2,990 

2,797 

16 

18 

4 

41.5 

14.5 

5 

44.5 

16 

6.5 

44 

15.75 

6.25 

4,628 

4,331 

26 

30 

5 

26 

15 

9 

29 

16.5 

10.5 

28.5 

16.25 

10.25 

5,024 

4,747 

23 

26 

6 

22 

18 

12 

25 

19.5 

13.5 

24.5 

19.25 

13.25 

6,581 

6,249 

29 

33 

7 

37.5 

14 

10 

40.5 

15.5 

11.5 

40 

15.25 

11.25 

7,219 

6,863 

31 

35 

8 

26 

19 

12 

29 

20.5 

13.5 

28.5 

20.25 

13.25 

8,026 

7,647 

31 

35 

9 

37.5 

14 

12 

40.5 

15.5 

13.5 

40 

15.25 

13.25 

8,475 

8,082 

35 

40 

10 

22.625 

22.5 

14.25 

25.625 

24 

15.75 

25.125 

23.75 

15.5 

9,686 

9,249 

34 

38 

11 

36 

17.5 

13 

39 

19 

14.5 

38.5 

18.75 

14.25 

10,745 

10,287 

39 

44 

12 

49 

16 

9 

52 

17.5 

10.5 

51.5 

17.25 

10.25 

9,555 

9,106 

40 

45 

13 

44 

15 

15 

47 

16.5 

16.5 

46.5 

16.25 

16.25 

12,796 

12,279 

45 

51 

14 

46 

26 

9 

49 

27.5 

10.5 

48.5 

27.25 

10.25 

14,149 

13,547 

52 

58 

15 

41 

21.5 

15 

44 

23 

16.5 

43.5 

22.75 

16.25 

16,698 

16,081 

55 

62 

16 

47 

20.5 

14.5 

50 

22 

16 

49.5 

21.75 

15.75 

17,600 

16,957 

58 

65 

17 

37 

26 

15 

40 

27.5 

16.5 

39.5 

27.25 

16.25 

18,150 

17,491 

57 

65 

18 

48 

21.5 

15 

51 

23 

16.5 

50.5 

22.75 

16.25 

19,355 

18,669 

59 

66 

19 

40.5 

25 

16 

43.5 

26.5 

17.5 

43 

26.25 

17.25 

20,173 

19,471 

58 

66 

20 

37 

22.5 

20 

40 

24 

21.5 

39.5 

23.75 

21.25 

20,640 

19,935 

61 

68 

21 

34 

29 

25 

37 

30.5 

26.5 

36.5 

30.25 

26.25 

29,905 

28,983 

76 

86 

22 

36 

17.5 

7.25 

39 

19 

8.75 

38.5 

18.75 

8.5 

6,484 

6,136 

30 

34 

24 

16.5 

17 

9.5 

19.5 

18.5 

11 

19 

18.25 

10.75 

3,968 

3,728 

19 

21 

25 

24.5 

14 

8 

27.5 

15.5 

9.5 

27 

15.25 

9.25 

4,049 

3,809 

20 

23 

26 

21 

16.5 

12 

24 

18 

13.5 

23.5 

17.75 

13.25 

5,832 

5,527 

25 

28 

27 

50 

14 

15 

53 

15.5 

16.5 

52.5 

15.25 

16.25 

13,555 

13,010 

48 

54 

28 

44 

21.5 

11.5 

47 

23 

13 

46.5 

22.75 

12.75 

14,053 

13,488 

48 

55 

29 

26 

22 

11.5 

29 

23.5 

13 

28.5 

23.25 

12.75 

8,860 

8,448 

33 

37 

30 

31.5 

20 

10 

34.5 

21.5 

11.5 

34 

21.25 

11.25 

8,530 

8.128 

33 

39 

31 

28 

8 

8 

31 

9.5 

9.5 

30.5 

9.25 

9.25 

2,798 

2,610 

17 

19 

33 

28 

9 

8 

31 

10.5 

9.5 

30.5 

10.25 

9.25 

3,092 

2,892 

17 

20 

34 

24 

26 

12 

27 

27.5 

13.5 

26.5 

27.25 

13.25 

10,024 

9,568 

36 

40 

35 

27 

7.5 

7 

30 

9 

8.5 

29.5 

8.75 

8.25 

2,295 

2,150 

15 

16 

36 

34 

11.5 

10.5 

37 

13 

12 

36.5 

12.75 

11.75 

5,772 

5,468 

26 

30 

39 

36.5 

26.5 

6 

39.5 

28 

7.5 

39 

27.75 

7.25 

8,295 

7,846 

38 

43 

40 

41 

20 

10 

44 

21.5 

11.5 

43.5 

21.25 

11.25 

10,879 

10,399 

41 

46 

41 

39 

27 

10 

42 

28.5 

11.5 

41.5 

28.25 

11.25 

13,766 

13,189 

48 

55 

42 

29 

20 

10 

32 

21.5 

11.5 

31.5 

21.25 

11.25 

7,912 

7,530 

32 

36 

43 

44 

16.5 

12.5 

47 

18 

14 

46.5 

17.75 

13.75 

11,S44 

11,349 

43 

48 

44 

33 

16.5 

11.5 

36 

18 

13 

35.5 

17.75 

12.75 

8,424 

8,034 

34 

38 

45 

33 

13.5 

9 

36 

15 

10.5 

35.5 

14.75 

10.25 

5,670 

5,367 

26 

29 

46 

35 

11.5 

11.5 

38 

13 

13 

37.5 

12.75 

12.75 

6,422 

6,096 

28 

32 

47 

26 

18 

12 

29 

19.5 

13.5 

28.5 

19.25 

13.25 

7,634 

7,269 

30 

34 

48 

19.5 

18.125 

16.5 

22.5 

19.625 

18 

22 

19.375 

17.75 

7,948 

7,566 

32 

36 

49 

41 

12.75 

12.25 

44 

14.25 

13.75 

43.5 

14 

13.5 

8,621 

8,222 

35 

39 

OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS  125 


How  TO  Build  a  Box 

Issued  by  the  SafepacJc  Mills 

There  are  eight  types  of  wooden  boxes  now  in  general 
use  for  shipping  goods.  Technically,  a  wooden  box  is 
any  closed,  rectangular  wooden  container  with  or  without 
cleats,  and  it  may  be  called  either  a  ^*box*'  or  a  '^case.'' 
They  are  the  same.  A  crate,  of  course,  may  also  be  en- 
tirely closed  or  sheathed  over,  but  it  differs  from  a  box 
in  that  it  has  an  inside  reenforcement  of  framework  or 
bracing.  There  are  also  special  types  of  veneer-panel, 
collapsible,  and  wire-bound  boxes.  The  larger  use,  how- 
ever, is  for  the  eight  types  of  standard  nailed  and  lock- 
cornered  boxes  shown  on  Diagram  I.  Which  of  these 
types  of  box  should  be  used  for  any  commodity  depends, 
of  course,  on  the  commodity  itself,  its  character,  weight 
and  bulk  and  the  destination  of  the  shipment.  But  the 
rules  which  follow  are  an  easy  guide  to  selection. 

Styles  of  Boxes 

Style  1  is  nucleated  and  is  used  mostly  for  small  boxes 
with  light  contents. 

Style  2  has  double.-cleated  ends  and  is  particularly 
adapted  for  large  boxes  with  heavy  contents,  because  of 
its  strength  due  to  cleats  and  to  double  nailing  of  sides, 
tops  and  bottoms  to  both  cleats  and  ends. 

Style  3  is  a  similar  box  with  mitered  cleats  and  heavier 
nailing,  also  adapted  for  large  boxes  with  heavy  contents. 

Style  4  has  single-cleated  ends  and  is  suitable  for 
boxes  of  medium  size  and  medium  weight  of  contents. 
The  sides  have  double  nailing  into  both  cleats  and  ends, 
but  the  top  and  bottom  have  only  single  nailing  into  ends. 

Style  5  has  internal  cleats  and  is  a  good  type  of  con- 
struction for  boxes  of  medium  size  and  weight  of  con- 
tents. Sometimes  the  width  of  the  cleat  is  nailed  to  the 
end  instead  of  to  the  side.    Sometimes  triangular  internal 


126 


EXPORT  PACKING 


*C£_e 'ii^.^ : 

STYLE  I 

y 

^ 

^^:^ 

• 

^ 

STYLE-  2 

^ 

^"^^^"0**^ 

•  il  STYLE  3    '   . 

^ 

.r'^ 

^s^' 

■^. 

STYLE  S 

y^ 

Courtesv  of  Safepack  Mills. 


.^■\    ^i 

:r  - c 

»                       c 

'            \ 

3                                  C 
3                                  C 
3                                  C 

3      STYLE  8     c 

7                   1 
}                   1 

Diagram  1 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS  127 

cleats  are  used  in  place  of  rectangular  cleats.  For  articles 
such  as  round  cans  and  odd-shaped  articles  which  do  not 
touch  the  corners  of  the  box,  considerable  displacement  in 
the  container  can  be  saved  by  the  use  of  this  style,  be- 
cause the  cleats  are  inside  and  take  up  space  otherwise 
unoccupied. 

Style  6  is  a  plain  lock-cornered  box  and  is  adapted 
for  boxes  of  medium  size  and  medium  weight  of  contents. 

Style  7  is  a  similar  lock-cornered  box  fitted  with  a 
sliding  cover. 

Style  8  is  a  similar  lock-cornered  box  equipped  with 
a  hinge  cover. 

Styles  1  to  6  are  mostly  used,  styles  7  and  8  being 
used  as  a  rule  for  more  or  less  special  products. 

Lumber 

Both  tests  and  actual  use  have  thoroughly  demon- 
strated that  satisfactory  boxes  can  be  made  of  prac- 
tically any  of  the  commercially  important  woods. 

Knots,  Knot  Holes,  Decay,  Worm  Holes  and  Checks.— 
The  lumber  used  in  the  box  should  also  be  sound — free 
from  decay,  dote  and  injurious  insect  or  worm  hole — and 
should  contain  no  knots  or  knot  holes  large  enough  to 
seriously  affect  the  strength  of  the  box. 

It  is  difficult  to  set  an  arbitrary  maximum  for  size  of 
knots  or  knot  holes  which  will  be  satisfactory  in  all  in- 
stances. The  degree  to  which  a  knot  weakens  a  board 
depends  not  only  upon  the  size  of  the  knot,  but  also  upon 
its  position  in  the  board  and  upon  whether  it  is  a  loose, 
decayed  or  sound  knot.  Knots  or  knot  holes  in  the  center 
of  a  box  board  are  generally  more  weakening  than  knots 
or  knot  holes  near  the  ends,  and  a  loose  or  rotten  knot  is 
generally  more  weakening  than  a  sound  knot. 

The  War  Department  specifications  for  export  boxes 
permitted  no  knots  larger  than  one-third  the  width  of 
the  board,  measured  as  in  Diagram  2,  and  permitted  no 
knot  holes  or  loose  or  rotten  knots  greater  than  one  inch 
in  diameter,  measured  as  in  Diagram  2.     These  speci- 


128 


EXPORT  PACKING 


fications  worked  out  very  satisfactorily  and  did  much 
toward  improving  the  quality  of  army  boxes.  It  has 
been  said  by  some  that  this  is  too  stringent  a  specifica- 
tion for  commercial  export  or  domestic  boxes,  because  it 
requires  too  expensive  construction.  Possibly  this  is 
true,  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  many  cases 
better  commercial  export  and  domestic  boxes  are  badly 
needed,  and  better  box  lumber  will  assist  greatly  in  im- 
proving them. 


Courtesy  of  Safepack  Mills. 
Diagram    2.    Method   of   measuring   knot. 


Boxes  which  must  be  tight  because  of  the  nature  of 
their  contents  should  be  made  of  lumber  free  from  knot 
holes  and  loose  or  rotten  knots.  No  knots  should  be  per- 
mitted in  any  box  which  interfere  with  proper  nailing. 
Large  checks  or  splits  are  objectionable,  because  they 
weaken  the  board  and  should  generally  not  be  admitted 
unless  reenforced  with  corrugated  fasteners  driven  across 
the  opening. 

Thickness  and  Width. — Probably  no  other  factor  is  of 
as  much  interest  to  the  box  industry  as  the  thicknesses 
and  the  widths  of  lumber  which  are  specified.  Because 
of  the  high  cost  of  the  upper  lumber  grades,  the  box  in- 
dustry is  compelled  to  use  the  lower  grades  which  con- 
tain knots  and  other  defects.  These  defects  are  cut  out 
in  resawing  the  boards,  the  amount  of  cutting  necessary 
and  the  waste  resulting  depending  upon  the  grade  of 
lumber  used  and  the  grade  of  box  desired.  Under  ordi- 
nary conditions  the  waste  in  cutting  out  defects  runs 
from  15  to  20  per  cent. 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS  129 

The  rough  thicknesses  available  are  generally  1",  li/4", 
11^"  and  occasionally  2",  and  the  available  widths  range 
from  3"  and  4"  up  to  12''.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  although  the  available  widths  run  up  to 
12"  or  sometimes  higher,  by  far  the  larger  per  cent  of 
material  available  runs  from  4"  to  6"  or  8". 

The  specifying  for  boxes  of  thicknesses  and  widths 
which  cannot  be  produced  by  the  box  maker  without  a 
large  amount  of  waste  decreases  the  production  of  the 
box  factory,  increases  the  cost  of  the  box  and  in  most  in- 
stances accomplishes  no  particular  purpose.  For  the 
sake  of  economy,  therefore,  the  standard  and  more  com- 
mon thicknesses  and  widths  should  be  adhered  to. 

Rule  for  Thickness. — The  particular  thickness  of  lum- 
ber required  for  a  box  depends  upon  whether  the  box  is 
for  domestic  or  export  shipment,  and  also  upon  the  char- 
acter, size  and  weight  of  the  contents.  It  is,  therefore, 
impossible  to  lay  down  a  general  rule  regarding  thickness 
which  will  apply  in  all  cases. 

Boxes  of  a  gross  weight  of  less  than  100  lbs.,  such  as 
boxes  for  canned  goods  and  boxes  for  shoes  and  soap,  are 
often  made  of  lumber  of  less  than  commercial  1"  thick- 
ness, using  %",  1/2"  or  %"  thickness,  according  to  the 
standard  practice.  These  thicknesses  are  resawed  from 
1",  11/2"  and  2"  thicknesses. 

Boxes  of  a  gross  weight  of  from  250  to  500  lbs.,  either 
for  domestic  or  for  export  shipment,  especially  those  of 
large  size,  should  generally  be  made  of  heavier  lumber 
than  1"  thickness,  using  commercial  1%",  1%''  and  2" 
thickness,  according  to  conditions. 

Boxes  for  export,  in  most  cases,  should  be  made  of 
thicker  material  than  boxes  for  domestic  shipment  owing 
to  the  increased  hazards  of  transportation  to  which  they 
are  liable  to  be  subjected.  The  thickness  required  for 
export  boxes  may  exceed  the  proper  thickness  for  domes- 
tic shipment  by  from  10  to  50  per  cent,  or  even  more, 
according  to  conditions.  During  the  war  the  U.  S.  Army 
found  that  for  hardware,  textile  materials,  leather  goods, 
mess  equipment  and  similar  material,  where  the  gross 


130  EXPORT  PACKING 

weight  of  the  box  and  contents  did  not  exceed  250  lbs. 
and  the  cubic  displacement  17  cubic  feet,  boxes  made  of 
standard  commercial  1-inch  lumber  with  cleated  ends, 
constructed  and  strapped  according  to  the  specifications 
which  follow,  were  of  sufficient  strength  for  both  domestic 
and  overseas  shipment. 

It  is  possible  to  construct  a  box  for  almost  any  size 
and  weight  of  contents,  but  in  general,  boxes  for  articles 
of  very  large  size  and  weight  are  not  economical,  because 
they  must  be  made  of  lumber  of  excessive  thickness  in 
order  to  have  the  required  strength.  Crating  of  large 
heavy  articles  is  much  more  economical  than  boxing,  as 
considerably  less  lumber  can  be  used  by  making  a  l&eavy 
crate  framework  of  sufficient  strength  to  carry  the  article, 
anchoring  the  article  to  it,  and  if  necessary,  covering  the 
framework  with  thin  1"  sheathing. 

It  has  been  conclusively  proven  that  boxes  which  are 
well  strapped  with  steel  strapping  require  thinner  lum- 
ber than  boxes  which  are  unstrapped.  The  great  value 
of  strapping  has  not  been  fully  realized,  and  its  use  is 
worthy  of  very  careful  study,  both  from  the  standpoint 
of  economy  in  packing,  enabling  the  use  of  thinner  lumber 
and  also  from  the  standpoint  of  increased  strength  of 
container. 

Rules  for  Width.  — Boxes  with  one-piece  sides,  tops, 
bottoms  and  ends  are  generally  stronger  and  more  de- 
sirable than  boxes  where  sides,  tops,  bottoms  and  ends 
are  composed  of  more  than  one  piece.  Except  in  the  case 
of  small  boxes,  it  is  generally  not  practical  to  use  one- 
piece  stock  entirely,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  securing 
wide  boards  and  because  of  their  cost.  It  is  advisable, 
however,  to  use  as  wide  boards  as  possible,  because  of  the 
difficulty  of  properly  nailing  boards  of  less  than  21/2"  face 
width.  Also  large  boxes  made  of  a  number  of  narrow 
boards  are  very  apt  to  shear  along  the  joints  between 
the  boards  when  dropped  on  a  comer  of  the  end,  causing 
the  ends  to  get  out  of  plumb,  greatly  weakening  the  box. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  available  widths  of  lumber  and 
also  the  relation  of  widths  of  different  size  to  the  strength 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS 


131 


of  the  box,  the  rules  for  width  were  worked  out  by  the 
War  Department. 

The  box  maker  i«  always  anxious  to  use  up  his  narrow 
stock  so  as  to  reduce  his  waste,  and  boxes  are  often  made 
which  contain  boards  l^/  or  even  V  wide.  However, 
the  minimum  face  width  of  boards  should  never  be  less 
than  21/2",  as  it  is  necessary  in  properly  nailing  a  box 
that  each  separate  piece  of  sides,  top  and  bottom  have  not 


BUTT 


5 


SHIPLAP 


Z 


TONGUE  irGROOVE 


1 


Diagram  3. 


LINDERMAN 

Oourtesy  of  Safcpack  Mills. 
Four  usual  methods  of  joining  boards  in  box  making. 


less  than  two  nails  at  each  nailing  end,  and  it  is  impos- 
sible to  successfully  drive  two  nails  into  the  end  of  a 
board  less  than  21/2"  in  width. 

Surfacing. — In  general,  boxes,  especially  small  ones, 
should  be  surfaced  on  the  outside,  because  rough  boxes 
are  very  difficult  to  handle  without  getting  splinters  in 
the  hands,  and  they  are  difficult  to  stencil  or  mark  prop- 
erly. Whether  or  not  the  box  should  be  surfaced  on  the 
inside  depends  upon  the  liability  of  the  contents  to  injury 
by  abrasion  on  rough  boards. 


132 


EXPORT  PACKING 


It  is  often  more  economical  to  make  a  box  of  boards 
which  are  surfaced  only  on  one  side,  as  they  can  some- 
times be  resawed  from  thicker  boards  with  less  waste 
than  boards  which  are  surfaced  on  two  sides.  For  in- 
stance, in  the  case  of  %''  lumber,  two  %"  thicknesses  can 
generally  be  resawed  from  commercial  ly^"  lumber  when 
the  boards  are  surfaced  on  one  side,  while  it  may  require 
full  1"  lumber  for  one  %"  thickness  when  the  boards  are 
surfaced  on  two  sides.  In  some  instances,  there  is  also 
the  question  of  slightly  increased  thickness  and  the  re- 
sulting greater  strength  of  boxes  made  of  lumber  sur- 
faced only  on  one  side. 


Oourteaj/  of  Safepack  Mills. 
Diagram  4.    Proper  metliod  of  nailing  an  undeated  box. 


Joining. — The  more  common  methods  of  joining  box 
boards  are  shown  in  Diagram  3.  Where  the  nature  of 
the  contents  demands  a  tight  box  for  protection  against 
moisture  and  dust  it  is  advisable  to  use  either  a  tongued 
and  grooved  or  a  Linderman  joint.  The  use  of  these 
joints  also  increases  the  strength  of  the  box,  as  the  in- 
dividual boards  assist  each  other  in  resisting  the  impact 
of  blows  which  tend  to  puncture  the  box.  When  the 
Linderman  joint  is  used,  the  dovetail  tongue — or  tongues 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS 


133 


where  the  double  Linderman  joint  is  used — should  be 
situated  equidistant  from  the  opposite  edges  of  the  board. 
Where  butt  joints  are  used  in  box  ends  1"  or  less  in 
thickness,  it  is  advisable  to  fasten  each  joint  with  not  less 
than  three  corrugated  fasteners,  two  driven  from  one 
side  near  the  ends  and  the  other  driven  from  the  opposite 
side,  midway  between  the  other  two.  The  use  of  corru- 
gated fasteners  in  butt  joints  in  sides,  tops  and  bottoms 
will  also  greatly  increase  their  strength.  It  is  also  ad- 
visable to  break  joints  between  boards  in  sides  and  ends 
of  box  to  eliminate  the  weakening  effect  of  a  continuous 
joint  clear  around  the  box. 


Courtesy  of  Safepack  Mills. 
Diagram  5.    Proper  method  of  nailing  a  single-cleated   box. 

Cleats. — Ends  one  inch  or  less  in  thickness  composed 
of  more  than  one  piece  and  not  reenforced  in  the  joints 
with  corrugated  fasteners  as  specified  above,  should  be 
cleated.  The  cleats  on  export  boxes  should,  as  a  rule, 
not  be  less  than  2"  wide  and  should  not  be  less  than  %" 
thick.    In  general,  cleats  and  ends  are  of  same  thickness. 

Boxes  whose  sides,  top,  bottom  and  ends  are  made  of 
woods  listed  in  Groups  1  and  2  may  have  cleats  made  of 
any  of  the  woods  listed  in  the  four  groups.  Boxes  whose 
sides,  top,  bottom  and  ends  are  made  of  woods  listed  in 
Groups  3  and  4  should  have  cleats  of  woods  from  Groups 
3  and  4  woods. 


134 


EXPORT  PACKING 


In  making  Style  4  boxes,  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
cleats  be  cut  a  little  shorter  than  the  over-all  height  of 
the  box,  so  that  the  ends  reach  slightly  below  the  top  and 
bottom  surfaces  of  the  box.  If  the  cleats  project  even 
slightly  above  the  top  and  bottom  surface,  they  are  very 
liable  to  be  loosened  or  torn  off  in  handling  the  box. 

The  value  of  cleats  lies  in  the  reenf orcing  which  they 
give  the  end  of  a  box  by  tying  it  together  and  reducing  to 
a  minimum  the  dangerous  effects  of  splitting  the  box  end. 
There  is  great  advantage  also  in  the  increased  nailing 
surface  which  they  afford  for  nailing  sides,  tops  and  bot- 
toms, with  consequent  added  strength  to  the  box.    Boxes 


Oourteau  of  Safepack  Mills. 
Diagram   6.    Proper  method   of   nailing   a   doublecleated   box. 

with  heavy  contents  and  boxes  of  great  depth  should,  as 
a  rule,  have  cleated  ends,  because  of  the  great  added 
strength  afforded  by  the  cleats. 

Nails  and  Nailing 


The  manner  in  which  a  box  or  case  is  nailed  is  of  ex- 
treme importance.  The  size  and  quality  of  wood  may  be 
just  right,  but  the  strength  of  the  box  and  the  safety  of 
its  contents  will  depend  largely  on  the  nailing.    A  box 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS  135 

is  only  as  strong  as  its  nail-holding  power.  Tests  have 
shown  that  a  few  correctly  placed  nails  will  sometimes 
increase  the  strength  of  a  box  100  per  cent. 

All  nails  with  the  possible  exception  of  nails  driven 
through  cleats  and  clinched  should  be  standard  cement- 
coated  box  nails,  for  cement-coated  nails  have  from  10  to 
30  per  cent,  more  holding  power  than  plain  nails  and 
greatly  increase  the  strength  of  the  box.  They  are  also 
of  lighter  gauge  than  plain  nails  and  cause  less  splitting 
in  driving,  and  being  lighter  in  gauge  they  are  cheaper, 
for  there  are  more  of  them  to  the  pound. 

Nailing  Outside  Cleats  to  Ends. — Cleats  should  be  se- 
curely nailed  to  ends  with  nails  sufficiently  long  to  pass 
through  both  thicknesses  of  lumber  and  clinch  at  least  y^ 


Courteap  of  Safepack  Millt. 

Diagram  7.    Bad  effect  of  overdriving  a  nail. 

of  an  inch.  At  least  two  nails  should  connect  each  sep- 
arate piece  of  end  to  each  cleat,  and  nails  at  top  and  bot- 
tom of  cleats  should  be  placed  as  near  the  ends  as  pos- 
sible without  splitting  the  cleats.  Approximately  the 
same  number  of  nails  should  be  used  in  nailing  cleats  to 
ends  of  box  as  are  used  in  nailing  the  adjacent  side,  top 
or  bottom  to  the  end.  Nails  should  be  spaced  evenly 
along  the  cleat  and  should  be  staggered,  care  being  taken 
to  place  the  nails  as  close  to  the  edge  of  the  cleat  as  pos- 
sible without  splitting  it.  Diagrams  5  and  6  show  the 
correct  way  to  nail  cleats  to  the  ends  of  a  box. 


136 


EXPORT  PACKING 


Nailing  Sides,  Top  and  Bottom  to  Ends.— The  gauge 
or  size  of  nails  to  be  used  here  is  determined  by  the  thick- 
ness and  by  the  species  of  the  ends  or  cleats  in  which 
the  points  of  the  nails  are  held  after  driving.  A  general 
rule  worked  out  by  the  Forest  Products  Laboratory  is  as 
follows : 

When  the  box  end  or  cleat  is  of  woods  listed  in  Groups 
3  and  4  the  penny  of  the  nails  should  be  the  thickness  of 
the  end  or  cleat  expressed  in  eighths  of  an  inch.    Ends  or 


Courtesy  oj  Safepack  Mills. 
Diagram  8.    Steel  strap  located  in  from  ends  of  box. 


cleats  of  woods  in  Groups  1  and  2  should  take  the  next 
penny  larger. 

This  is  a  good  general  rule,  but  the  Forest  Products 
Laboratory  has  recently  worked  up  a  nailing  schedule  for 
boxes  up  to  %''  in  thickness  which  gives  better  nailing 
in  individual  cases.  (See  Capt.  Knowlton's  chapter  on 
this  subject.) 

For  export  boxes  the  spacing  of  the  nails  should  be  as 
follows :  Six-penny  nails  and  nails  smaller  than  6-penny 
should  be  spaced  not  more  than  11/2"  apart  when  driven 
in  the  side  grain  of  the  end  (see  nails  marked  ^*X''  in 
Diagrams  4,  5  and  6)  and  not  more  than  ll^"  apart  when 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS 


137 


driven  in  tlie  end  grain  of  the  end  (see  nails  marked  <^y 
in  Diagrams  4,  5  and  6).  In  the  case  of  nails  larger  than 
six-penny,  the  spacing  in  end  construction  should  be  in- 
creased over  these  sizes  one-fourth  of  an  inch  for  each 
penny  over  six. 

Nailing  Top  and  Bottom  to  Sides.— The  spacing  of  the 
nails  should  be  six  inches  or  more  apart  when  nails  are 
six-penny  or  smaller  (see  nails  marked  ^*Z''  in  Diagrams 
4,  5  and  6).  For  nails  larger  than  six-penny  increase  the 
spacing  one  inch  for  each  penny  over  six. 


Oourte%y  of  Bafepack  Mills. 
Diagram  9.     Steel  strap  applied  at  ends  of  box,  directly  over  nailing. 


Driving  of  Nails.— The  heads  of  the  nails  should  be 
heavy  enough  not  to  be  broken  in  driving,  and  nails  with 
large  heads  are  preferable  to  nails  with  small  heads,  as 
they  are  less  liable  to  pull  through  the  boards. 

In  all  cases  care  should  be  taken  not  to  overdrive  nails. 
Nails  should  be  driven  so  that  heads  are  just  flush  with 
the  surface  of  the  boards,  because  when  the  heads  of 
nails  are  driven  below  the  surface  of  the  boards  the  wood 
structure  is  broken  down,  and  the  holding  power  of  the 
nail  is  greatly  decreased,  as  Diagram  7  shows.  No  nails 
should  be  driven  into  joints. 


138 


EXPORT  PACKING 


The  Lock-Cornered  Box 

A  large  part  of  the  efficiency  of  the  lock-cornered  type 
of  box  depends  upon  the  strength  of  the  lock-cornered 
joint,  and,  therefore,  care  should  be  taken  to  make  the 
joint  properly.  Locks  at  corners  should  fit  tightly,  and 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  thoroughly  glue  the  locks 
with  a  good  grade  of  glue.  The  strength  of  the  lock- 
cornered  joints  can  be  greatly  increased  by  driving  a 
long  thin  finishing  nail  down  through  two  or  three  of  the 
locks  at  each  of  the  eight  comers. 


^STEEL  STRAPPING   y 

Y     /  Y  Y  r 


V|- 


JL 


M/ 


"7 

Courtesy  of  Sajepach  Mills. 
Diagram  10.    Section  of  strap-boimd  box  shown  in  Diagram  8. 


Wherever  possible  sides  and  ends  should  be  of  one 
piece.  When  sides  and  ends  are  made  of  more  than  one 
piece,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  break  the  joints  be- 
tween boards  in  the  sides  and  ends  at  least  1",  and  prefer- 
ably l%"j  i^  possible.  If  this  is  not  done  the  box  is  liable 
to  split  in  two  at  the  joints  between  the  boards. 

For  nailing  the  top  and  bottom  of  lock-cornered  boxes 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS  139 

to  the  sides,  the  same  rule  applies  as  in  the  case  of  nailed 
boxes. 

Metal  Strapping  of  Boxes 

There  is  no  other  means  which  will  strengthen  a  box 
so  greatly  as  reenforcing  it  with  steel  strapping.  Tests 
show  that  it  is  possible  to  increase  the  strength  of  a  box 
100  per  cent  or  even  more  by  the  proper  application  of 
steel  strapping.  Also  thinner  lumber  can  be  used  and  the 
cost  of  the  box  reduced,  and  in  addition  strapping  is  of 
great  assistance  in  preventing  the  pilfering  of  boxes. 

It  is  good  export  practice  to  strap  all  boxes  for  over- 
seas shipment,  no  matter  what  their  size,  weight  or  des- 
tination. If  strapping  were  also  used  to  a  much  greater 
extent  on  domestic  shipments,  it  would  go  a  long  way 
toward  reducing  the  damage  claims  paid  by  the  carriers 
for  broken  and  pilfered  boxes.  Also  the  required  strength 
of  a  container  can  be  secured  much  more  cheaply  by  the 
proper  use  of  steel  strapping  than  by  lumber  of  excessive 
thickness. 

Types  of  Strapping. — The  two  most  common  types  of 
strapping  are  flat  steel  band  strapping  and  single  or 
twisted  wire  strapping.  There  are  also  efficient  special 
patented  types  of  nailless  strap  and  wire.  For  all-around 
use,  however,  there  is  no  better  strap  than  flat  band,  cold 
rolled,  unannealed  steel  strap,  coated  to  prevent  rust,  if 
it  is  properly  stretched,  properly  located  on  the  box  and 
properly  nailed. 

Unannealed  flat  band  strapping  makes  a  stronger 
binding  than  annealed,  for  the  unannealed  strap  pos- 
sesses by  actual  test  over  30  per  cent  more  tensile 
strength  than  the  annealed.  Also  it  usually  does  not  cost 
any  more.  The  tensile  strength  of  a  strap  is  its  most  im- 
portant quality,  as  most  strap  fails  by  a  direct  tensile 
strain  or  by  a  tear.  When  a  box  dries  out  it  shrinks  and 
the  strap  loosens  between  nails,  causing  it  to  bulge  away 
from  the  box.  Then,  when  the  box  is  handled  in  freight 
cars,  on  the  docks,  in  the  hold  of  a  ship  or  in  the  ware- 


140  EXPORT  PACKING 

house  the  strap  often  catches  on  nails  or  other  projections 
and  tears  or  breaks. 

Annealed  strap  because  of  its  low  tensile  strength  is 
consequently  much  more  liable  to  tear  or  break  than 
unannealed  strap.  Also  the  annealed  strap  possesses  con- 
siderable ability  to  stretch,  which  is  another  undesirable 
quality.  The  annealed  strap  nails  somewhat  easier  than 
the  unannealed,  but  in  the  gauges  used  for  ordinary  boxes 
there  is  no  difficulty  in  nailing  the  unannealed  strap. 

Location  of  Straps. — Boxes  are  strapped  in  two  dif- 
ferent ways :  with  the  strap  directly  over  the  ends  of  the 
box,  as  shown  in  Diagram  9,  and  with  the  strap  a  slight 
distance  in  from  the  ends,  as  shown  in  Diagram  8. 

The  location  of  the  strap  slightly  in  from  the  ends 
of  the  box  as  shown  in  Diagram  8  gives  a  tighter  binding, 
especially  on  boxes  which  are  long,  than  strap  applied 
directly  over  the  ends,  because  in  this  position  it  better 
prevents  the  bulging  of  the  side,  top  and  bottom  boards, 
which  causes  the  nails  in  the  end  to  start.  However,  on 
boxes  whose  sides,  top  and  bottom  are  less  than  %"  in 
thickness  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  nail  the  strap  when 
applied  in  from  the  ends,  because  of  the  thinness  of  the 
boards.  The  distance  which  the  strap  should  be  in  from 
the  ends  will  vary  with  the  size  of  the  box  arid  the  weight 
of  the  contents,  but  will  generally  be  somewhere  between 
2"  and  5".  Nailless  strap  and  wire  are  always  applied 
in  from  the  ends  of  the  box,  being  drawn  tight  by  a 
stretching  tool  and  the  ends  either  sealed  with  a  seal  for 
flat  band  strap  or  twisted  if  wire  strap  is  used. 

Strap  applied  directly  over  the  ends  of  the  box  is 
generally  easier  to  apply  than  strap  applied  in  from  the 
ends,  because  the  ends  of  the  box  afford  a  firmer  nailing 
surface  and  not  so  much  care  has  to  be  exercised  in 
nailing.  Strap  located  on  the  end  of  the  box  not  only 
assists  in  binding  the  sides,  top  and  bottom  boards  to  the 
ends,  but  also  serves  to  prevent  the  nails  in  the  side,  top 
and  bottom  boards  from  working  out. 

Stretching  and  Nailing. — The  stretching  of  the  strap 
is  of  the  utmost  importance,  for  a  loose  strap  loses  most 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS  141 

of  its  efficiency  as  a  binding,  and  the  tighter  the  strap  the 
less  it  will  bulge  when  the  box  shrinks.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  tools  on  the  market  which  stretch  the  strap  well 
and  are  simple  to  use.^ 

Diagrams  8  and  10  show  the  correct  way  to  nail  strap- 
ping when  located  in  from  the  ends  of  the  box  with  double 
corner  nails  **x*'  and  small  flatheaded  nails  **y'*  holding 
the  strap  to  the  side,  top  and  bottom  of  the  box,  spaced 
about  6"  apart.  With  %"  strap  it  would  probably  be 
difficult  to  place  two  nails  at  the  comers  as  shown  at  **x,'' 
in  which  case  one  nail  should  be  used  driven  through  the 
strap  and  through  the  top  or  bottom  board  into  the  side 
board.  The  lap  of  the  strap  should  be  at  the  corner,  as 
shown,  a  nail  being  driven  close  to  the  end  of  the  strap  so 
as  to  hold  the  end  down  firmly. 

The  double  corner  nails  **x*'  hold  the  strap  securely 
against  a  pull  in  either  direction,  and  the  intermediate 
nails  **y*'  keep  the  strap  snug  against  the  box  and  pre- 
vent it  from  bulging.  Four-penny  cement-coated  nails 
are  generally  large  enough  for  the  corner  nails  **x,*'  and 
the  intermediate  nails  **y"  should  be  short,  flatheaded 
nails  of  length  slightly  less  than  the  thickness  of  the 
sides,  top  and  bottom.    All  nails  should  be  cement  coated. 

Strapping  located  directly  over  the  ends  is  nailed 
with  double  comer  nails  **x'*  (see  Diagram  9).  The 
intermediate  nails  **y,'*  however,  are  the  same  size  and 
length  as  the  nails  **x''  and  are  generally  spaced  about 
3  or  4  inches  apart. 

Pilfering 

Many  million  dollars  worth  of  goods  are  lost  each 
year  by  pilfering,  both  in  domestic  and  export  shipment. 

*  Instructions  issued  by  the  General  Engineer  Depot  of  the  Army 
read:  **Each  ease  will  be  firmly  bound  with  unannealed  cold  rolled  strip 
steel.  Ends  should  lap  at  least  four  inches.  Bands  shall  be  drawn  tight 
by  mechanical  means;  the  use  of  a  hammer  claw  and  driving  a  nail  on 
a  slant  and  then  straightening  it  up  are  not  satisfactory;  the  joint  shall 
be  on  the  side  of  the  box  or  crate.  Bands  shall  preferably  be  put  on  as 
late  as  may  be  before  shipment,  to  minimize  the  effect  of  shrinkage." 


142 


EXPORT  PACKING 


Of  course,  no  wooden  box  can  be  made  so  strong  that  it 
cannot  be  broken  open.  A  box  can  be  so  sealed,  however, 
that  it  is  difficult  for  a  thief  to  get  into  it  without  a  good 
deal  of  trouble  and  without  it  showing  the  effects  of  tam- 
pering. Well  applied  strapping  assists  greatly  in  pre- 
venting pilfering,  although  an  experienced  thief  can  often 
get  into  a  strapped  box  and  seal  it  up  again  so  that  it  is 
difficult  to  see  that  it  has  been  tampered  with. 

There  are  a  number  of  patented  safety  clips  on  the 
market  which  are  very  efficient  in  preventing  pilfering. 


Courtesy  of  Safepack  Mills. 
Diagram  11.    Method  of  scaling  l>a5  to  prevent  pilfering. 

One  of  the  most  efficient  methods,  however,  is  to  use  a 
tongued  and  grooved  box  and  to  seal  the  top,  bottom  and 
side  boards  of  the  box  to  the  sides  and  ends  by  means  of 
countersunk  screws  and  sealing  wax.  Each  separate 
board  of  the  top  and  bottom  and  center  boards  of  the 
sides  should  be  sealed,  with  seals  located  as  shown  in 
Diagram  11.  The  seal  on  the  outside  top  or  bottom 
boards  **x''  should  be  on  alternate  ends  about  8"  from  the 
end  of  the  board.  The  center  boards  ^*y'^  should  each 
have  one  seal  at  the  end. 

The  seal  is  made  as  shown  on  Diagram  12.    A  hole 
**H*'  is  bored  %"  wide  by  3/16"  deep,  care  being  taken 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS 


143 


that  the  hole  does  not  break  the  edge  of  the  board.  A 
screw  '^S*'  of  length  equal  to  twice  the  thickness  of  the 
top,  bottom  or  side  boards  of  the  box  is  then  driven 
through  the  top,  bottom  or  side  boards  down  into  the  side 
or  end  of  the  box.  After  the  screw  has  been  tightly 
driven,  hot  sealing  wax  ''W.'  is  poured  into  the  hole 
**H^'  so  that  it  is  about  two-thirds  full.  While  the  wax 
is  still  hot  it  is  stamped  with  the  manufacturer's  initials 
^'I,''  the  trademark  or  other  distinctive  mark.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  pour  the  hole  clear  full  of  wax,  as 
the  wax  is  then  liable  to  be  broken  by  other  boxes  sliding 
over  it. 


-Ifr 


5£^ 


U^      i--|/^ 


,£. 


£3S^S — * 


S»tt  tkry  X 


ittf  ^f"'»  * 


J«bt  thtw  X 


Courtesy  of  Safcpack  Mills. 
Diagram  12.    Cross  section  showing  method  of  preventing  pilfering. 

With  a  box  sealed  in  this  manner  the  top  and  bottom 
boards  cannot  be  removed  without  breaking  the  wax  seal 
to  remove  the  screws,  after  which  the  box  would  show 
the  effects  of  tampering.  This  is  the  standard  method 
of  sealing  used  by  the  War  Department. 

Standard  Crating  Specifications  of  the  War 
Department 


A  crate  consists  of  a  frame  with  or  without  bracing. 
It  may  be  of  open  construction  or  completely  closed  with 
sheathing.  The  lumber  must  be  sound  (free  from  decay 
and  dote),  well  manufactured  and  well  seasoned.  Frame 
and  bracing  must  be  free  from  knots  greater  than  one- 
fourth  the  width  of  the  face,  and  sheathing  material  must 


144 


EXPORT  PACKLSfG 


be  free  from  knots  greater  than  one-third  the  width  of 
the  boards.  No  knot  shall  be  permitted  that  interferes 
with  the  nailing. 

For  these  specifications  well-seasoned  lumber  has  an 
average  moisture  content  of  12  to  18  per  cent.,  based  on 
the  weight  of  the  wood  after  oven  drying. 

The  principal  woods  used  for  framing  and  for  frame 
bracing  and  sheathing  are  grouped  as  follows: 

FRAMES  AND  FRAME  BRACES 

Group  1 


White  pine. 

-Sugar  pine. 

Norway  pine. 

Cypress. 

Aspen. 

Basswood. 

Spruce. 

Willow. 

Western  yell 

ow  pine. 

Noble  fir. 

Cottonwood. 

Magnolia. 

Yellow  poplar. 

Buckeye. 

Balsam  fir. 

White  fir. 

Chestnut. 

Cedar. 

Butternut. 

Alpine  fir. 

Kedwood. 

Lodgepole  pine. 

Cucumber. 

Group  2 

• 

Southern  yellow  pine. 

Virginia  and  North  Carolina  pine 

Hemlock. 

Oak. 

Elm. 

Hackberry. 

Eed  gum. 

Douglas  fir. 

Sycamore. 

Larch. 

Ash. 

Black  gum. 

Maple. 

Tupelo. 

Beech. 

Birch. 

Sheathing. — Any  species  of  wood  may  be  used  for 
sheathing. 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS 


145 


Thickness  of  Material. — When  woods  used  for  frames 
and  braces  in  Group  1  are  1  to  2  inches  thick,  woods  in 
Group  2  may  be  one-fourth  inch  less  in  thickness ;  when 
woods  in  Group  1  are  more  than  2  inches  thick,  woods  in 
Group  2  may  be  one-half  inch  less  in  thickness. 

Sheathing  material  of  wood  shall  be  approximately 
thirteen-sixteenths  inch  thick. 


^ 


Figure  1 


Widths  of  Lumber.^-Pieces  less  than  3  inches  wide 
shall  not  be  used  in  frames  or  frame  braces.  Pieces  less 
than  21/2  inches  wide  shall  not  be  used  in  sheathing. 

Nails. — All  nails  20-penny  or  less  shall  be  standard 
cement-coated  box  nails. 

In  frames,  frame  braces  and  sheathing  the  thickness 
of  the  member  to  be  nailed  on  determines  the  penny  of 
the  nails  used.  In  frame  and  frame  braces  the  length  of 
the  nail  should  not  be  less  than  twice  the  thickness  of  the 
member  nailed  on.    In  sheathing  the  nails  should  be  two- 


146 


EXPORT  PACKING 


penny  larger  than  the  thickness  of  the  member  expressed 
in  eighths  of  an  inch. 

Spacing  Nails. — Frames  and  braces  shall  not  have  less 
than  two  nails  in  each  nailing  edge.  Nails  in  bracing  and 
sheathing  are  to  be  staggered,  approximately  21/2  inches 
apart.  Cross  braces  must  have  not  less  than  two  nails 
driven  through  the  two  pieces,  and  these  must  be  clinched 
where  possible.  Bracing  should  have  as  many  nails  as 
can  be  driven  without  splitting  either  member. 


Figure  2 


Bolts. — Bolts  sliall  be  used  on  heavy  frame  pieces,  not 
less  than  two  bolts  to  each  framing  edge  (see  Fig.  1). 
Standard  cut  washers  shall  be  used  under  boltheads  and 
nuts,  except  under  heads  of  carriage  bolts.  Holes  for 
bolts  shall  be  the  same  diameter  as  the  bolts.  Carriage 
bolts  shall  be  used  in  preference  to  machine  bolts.  Not 
less  than  %-inch  bolts  shall  be  used  for  frames  1  to  1% 
inches  thick;  i/2-^^ch  bolts  in  frames  up  to  3  inches  thick; 
%-inch  bolts  in  frames  over  3  inches  thick. 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS 


147 


Contents  shall  be  bolted  to  skids  with  not  less  than 
four  bolts  where  feasible,  the  size  of  the  bolts  to  be 
determined  by  the  holes  in  the  machine  base.  When 
machine  bolts  are  used,  heads  shall  be  counterbored  flush 
with  skids,  and  each  bolt  shall  have  a  single-cut  washer 
of  standard  size.  The  thread  of  bolts  shall  be  upset  close 
to  the  nut,  so  that  the  nuts  will  not  work  loose  in  trans- 
portation.   To  remove  the  nuts  split  them  if  necessary. 

Designs  of  Crates  and  Crate  Bracing 


The  preferred  design  of  crate  construction  is  the 
three-way  corner  construction  end,  in  which  are  placed 


Figure  3 


Figure  4 


on  the  inside  of  the  longitudinal  members  either  the  ver- 
tical or  horizontal  end  members,  whichever  conserves  the 
greater  space.    (See  Figures  1  and  2.) 

On  heavy  articles  skids  should  be  at  least  50  per  cent 
thicker  than  the  other  members  of  the  frame,  the  addi- 
tional thickness  to  be  in  a  separate  piece  bolted  to  the 
skids  and  extended  to  meet  the  vertical  members.  (See 
Fig.  3.) 

Combined  thickness  of  the  cross  braces  shall  equal 
the  thickness  of  the  frame  members.    (See  Fig.  4.) 

In  angular  crate  bracing  a  cross  member  shall  be 
placed  so  as  to  bring  the  angular  brace  as  near  45°  as 
possible.    (See  Fig.  5.) 

On  all  heavy  material  each  side  of  crate  shall  be 
marked  so  as  to  show  the  center  of  gravity,  and  the  skids 


148 


EXPORT  PACKING 


shall  be  slotted  on  each  side  far  enough  apart  to  admit 
of  proper  handling.  Slots  shall  be  at  least  2  inches  deep 
by  8  inches  long,  so  that  when  the  crate  is  being  slung 
the  hook  on  the  hoisting  point  will  span  equally  the  center 
of  gravity.    (See  Fig.  6.) 

Internal  Bracing 

Cleats  of  suitable  length  and  thickness  shall  be  used 
and  shall  be  nailed  or  bolted  to  the  skids  at  the  base  of 
contents  so  as  to  prevent  longitudinal  movements.  All 
internal  cleats  and  bracing,  so  far  as  possible,  shall  be 


Figure  5 

SO  placed  that  the  compression  stress  is  against  the  end 
grain  of  the  wood.  (See  Fig.  7.)  When  contents  have 
no  base  holes  for  bolting  to  skids,  clamps  must  be  placed 
at  each  end  or  side,  fitted  snugly  to  the  load,  and  held  in 
place  by  one  bolt  at  each  end.  The  clamps  shall  be  full 
width  of  crate  and  of  such  square  dimensions  as  will 
admit  of  no  springing  when  bolts  are  drawn  home.  Such 
contents  shall  also  have  side  cleats  to  prevent  lateral 
movement. 

Space  for  Marking.— Some  members  of  the  crate  shall 
be  surfaced  to  permit  adequate  space  for  markings. 


Exceptions  to  General  Specifications 

In  the  designing  of  crates  for  the  protection  of  con- 
tents the  information  given,  with  the  explanatory  draw- 
ings, is  of  a  general  character  and  covers  in  a  general 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS 


149 


way  all  the  material  to  be  handled.  There  are,  however, 
many  exceptional  cases  where  the  material  to  be  crated 
is  of  such  a  nature  that  it  may  be  necessary  to  depart 
from  these  rules.  All  manufacturers  contributing 
material  for  Government  uses  should  remember  that  con- 
ditions under  which  this  material  is  handled  are  prob- 
ably very  much  rougher  and  that  the  facilities  for 
handling  it  are  fewer  than  ordinarily  is  the  case  in  export 
service.  While  the  nature  of  the  contents  indicates  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  to  ride,  whenever  possible  material 
should  be  packed  so  that  the  packages  will  rest  safely  on 
side,  top,  bottom  or  end. 

Strapping  on  Crates.— In  the  use  of  strapping  on 
crates  there  are  so  many  forms,  with  such  varied  uses 
and  functions,  that  it  is  not  practical  to  lay  down  any 


Sockc*  M^ltwJ 


Figure  7 

fundamental  rules  to  govern;  yet  straps  are  absolutely 
essential  in  certain  cases,  and  must  not  be  omitted  in 
those  instances,  particularly  at  comers  and  at  joints. 

Standard  Baling  Specifications  of  the  Wab 
Department 


Size  of  Bale. — Bales  shall  be  made  to  conform  to  the 
following  standard  size :  Length,  30  inches ;  width,  15 
inches;  height,  variable,  but  approaching  15  inches  as 
nearly  as  possible,  but  not  being  less  than  14  inches  nor 
more  than  19  inches ;  gross  weight,  70  to  140  pounds. 

The  only  exception  to  this  rule  will  be  when  the  ma- 
terial to  be  baled  is  of  such  size  and  weight  that  it  is 


150  EXPORT  PACKING 

impossible  or  impracticable  to  make  it  into  a  bale  of  this 
standard  size  and  weight. 

Number  of  Articles  per  Bale.— The  purpose  in  baling 
is  to  pack  the  maximum  number  of  articles  in  the  mini- 
mum of  space  without  damaging  them. 

Methods  of  Folding  and  Forming  Articles  in  Bales. — 
Care  should  be  taken  in  folding  and  forming  that  articles 
will  produce  neat,  uniform  and  compact  bales ;  care  taken 
that  joints  be  broken  to  avoid  cutting  of  covering  by- 
straps. 

Covering. — Bales  shall  be  covered  with  burlap  of 
weight  not  less  than  10  ounces  to  40  inches  in  width. 

For  the  standard  bale  30  by  15  by  14  to  19  inches,  two 
pieces  are  required,  each  piece  50  by  40  inches  wide. 
Larger  sizes  require  correspondingly  larger  pieces. 

Interlining  Paper. — Each  bale  shall  have  underneath 
the  burlap  a  lining  of  waterproof  paper. 

The  interlining  paper  shall  conform  to  the  following 
specifications : 

60/60  Watekproof  Kraft  Wrapping  Paper  for  Baling 

Weight. — Shall  be  not  less  than  330  pounds.  (Two 
sheets  60-pound  Kraft  duplexed  with  asphaltum.)  36  X 
50  —  480  (24  X  36  —  480,  160  pounds). 

Stock:    Shall  be  100  per  cent  sulphate  pulp. 

Bursting  strength :  Shall  be  not  less  than  140  points. 
Bursting  strength  after  exposure  of  the  waterproofed 
side  to  3  inches  of  water  for  three  hours  shall  not  de- 
crease more  than  25  per  cent. 

Water  Resistance. — The  paper  shall  not  wet  or 
dampen  through  in  10  days. 

Waterproofing.— The  paper  shall  be  duplexed  with 
and  one  surface  waterproofed  with  asphaltum  or  its 
equal.  The  paper  shall  be  flexible,  but  not  tacky  under 
ordinary  weather  conditions  where  a  duplex  paper  is 
used. 

Cohesion. — The  plies  shall  not  separate  under  service 
conditions. 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS  151 

Basis  of  Purchase.— For  1,000  sheets  36  by  50. 

Explanation  of  Tests.— Bursting  strength  is  deter- 
mined with  the  Mullen  tester  or  testing  machine  giving 
equivalent  results,  the  paper  clamped  with  the  water- 
proofed side  up.  Water-resistance  test  to  be  made  with 
a  column  of  water  3  inches  in  height  after  the  paper  has 
been  crumpled  in  the  hand. 

For  the  standard  bale  30  by  15  by  14  to  19  inches, 
experience  has  shown  that  it  is  desirable  to  have  at  least 
two  sheets,  each  sheet  50  inches  long  and  36  inches  wide. 
Larger  sizes  require  correspondingly  larger  sheets.  The 
sides  of  bales  should  be  reenforced  when  necessary  with 
fiber  boards,  %-inch  slats,  or  other  light  material,  to  add 
protection  and  rigidity. 

Banding. — The  banding  shall  be  of  cold-rolled  unan- 
nealed  steel  %  inch  wide,  not  less  than  No.  26  gauge.  It 
shall  be  painted  or  coated  to  prevent  rust  and  shall  have 
a  tensile  strength  of  not  less  than  850  pounds. 

Not  less  than  four  bands  shall  be  used  on  each  bale. 
The  two  outside  bands  shall  be  placed  approximately  4 
inches  from  each  end,  and  the  intermediate  bands  shall 
be  placed  equidistant  from  each  and  from  the  end  bands. 

Bands  shall  be  applied  by  a  mechanical  stretching 
tool  and  must  be  stretched  so  tightly  that  the  compres- 
sion of  the  bale  will  be  held  and  that  the  bands  will  re- 
main in  place  and  not  slip  off  over  the  ends  of  the  bale. 

Sealing  of  Bands. — The  ends  of  bands  shall  be  sealed 
with  a  metal  sleeve  or  seal  designed  to  be  either  punched 
or  crimped.  The  breaking  strength  of  the  sealed  joint 
shall  not  be  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  breaking  strength 
of  the  strapping. 

Loose  ends  of  bands  shall  be  folded  under,  cut  round, 
cut  or  broken  off  so  that  no  spider  is  left  projecting. 

Sewing. — The  burlap  shall  be  sewed  up  with  three- 
ply  linen  or  twine  of  equal  quality  of  not  less  than  40 
pounds  tensile  strength.  Bales  shall  be  sewed  sides  and 
ends,  and  each  stitch  shall  be  knotted,  and  stitches  shall 
be  not  less  than  2  inches  in  length. 

Ears.— Not  less  than  5  inches  of  surplus  burlap  shall 


152  EXPORT  PACKING 

be  gathered  together  on  each  of  the  four  corners  and 
securely  sewed  into  ^' ears'*  for  handles.  All  ends  of 
twine  shall  be  securely  fastened. 

Stenciling. — Stencil  black,  United  States  Army  stand- 
ard, must  be  used,  and  the  marking  shall  be  in  letters  or 
figures  as  large  as  possible. 

Standard  Specifications  of  the  War  Department  for 
Marking  Packages 

No  advertising  matter  shall  appear  on  packages. 

Stenciling  is  preferable  to  hand  marking.  The  height 
of  letters  shall  conform  to  the  size  and  character  of  pack- 
age, but  shall  not  be  less  than  %  inch.  When  marking 
with  stencils,  use  only  United  States  Army  stencil  black 
standard  paint  of  the  following  composition : 

Pigment,  50  per  cent. 

Liquid,  50  per  cent. 

Pigment  shall  consist  of: 

Drop  black,  50  per  cent. 

Calcium  carbonate,  50  per  cent. 

Liquid  portion  shall  consist  of : 

Varnish,  70  per  cent. 

Combined  dryer  and  thinner,  30  per  cent. 

The  thinner  shall  consist  of  turpentine  or  volatile 
mineral  spirits  or  a  mixture  thereof. 

The  varnish  should  be  a  clear  spar  varnish.  For 
bales  or  crates  use  the  standard  system  of  marking.  For 
marking  machinery  carts,  structural  steel,  or  similar 
commodities,  use  United  States  standard  paint,  either 
white  or  of  the  corps  color. 

**  Tests  and  Suggestions  for  the  Nailing  of  Boxes" 

By  J.  A.  Newlin  in  ''The  Barrel  and  Box*' 

*^The  purpose  of  nailing  a  box  is  to  hold  it  together 
and  give  it  rigidity.  To  use  more  nails  or  larger  nails 
than  are  necessary  to  accomplish  this  purpose  is  a  waste 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS  153 

of  both  material  and  labor.  To  use  fewer  nails  than  are 
necessary  to  hold  properly  under  ordinary  conditions  re- 
sults in  breakage  of  the  box  and  damage  to  the  contents. 
*' Tests  at  the  Forest  Products  Laboratory  of  the 
United  States  Forest  Service,  at  Madison,  Wis.,  and 
observations  of  packages  in  transit  and  at  their  destina- 
tion, have  shown  conclusively  that  where  the  nailing  is 
insufficient  the  package  cannot  be  improved  by  putting 
in  heavier  lumber.    Observation  has  shown  also  that  the 


Figure  9.    Shrinking  of  fibers  from  driven  nail. 

majority  of  failures  in  ordinary  boxes  are  due,  not  to  the 
lumber  but  to  the  nailing.  It  is  also  evident  that  in  many 
instances  a  better  package  could  be  obtained  with  much 
thinner  material  by  the  use  of  a  few  more  nails. 

**In  arriving  at  the  proper  nailing  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  factors  that  must  be  considered.  These  involve  the 
nail,  its  length,  diameter,  and  surface,  and  the  species  of 
wood,  its  thickness  and  condition. 

**It  is  desirable  to  know  whether  the  nail  should  be 
smooth,  barbed,  or  cement-coated.  Our  tests  have  shown 
that  at  least  in  the  ordinary  sizes,  barbed  4iails  are  not 


154 


EXPOBT  PACKING 


so  efficient  in  box  construction  as  smooth  ones.  Ap- 
parently the  ability  of  the  barbs  to  increase  the  resist- 
ance of  the  nail-  to  withdrawal  is  more  than  oifset  by 
their  tendency  to  tear  the  wood.  Cement-coated  nails 
have  given  uniformly  better  results  than  smooth  nails, 
although  different  lots  of  cement-coated  nails  have  shown 
greater  variation  in  efficiency  than  smooth  nails.  The 
holding  power  of  the  cement-coated  nail  is  from  10  to  30 
per  cent  greater  than  that  of  the  same  sized  smooth  nail. 
On  an  average,  a  box  built  up  with  the  cement-coated 
nails  will  withstand  about  one  and  one-half  times  as  much 
rough  handling  as  a  box  made  with  the  same  number  and 
gauge  of  smooth  nails.^ 

**Length  and  Diameter  of  Nails. — If  the  nail  is  short 
and  is  driven  into  soft  wood,  the  weaving  of  the  box  in 
transportation  and  shocks'  due  to  rough  handling  will 
cause  the  nail  to  work  back  and  forth  to  its  full  length 
in  the  wood  and  come  loose  almost  immediately,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  it  may  be  of  comparatively  heavy 
gauge. 

*  '■  If  the  nail  is  very  slender  it  will  not  drive  well,  and 
the  longer  it  is  the  greater  must  be  its  diameter  in  order 
to  insure  that  it  will  drive.  If  a  very  slender  nail  is 
driven  to  considerable  depth  in  a  piece  of  hard  wood,  the 
shocks  of  transportation  and  handling  will  bend  the  nail 
between  the  two  planks  of  the  box  and  it  may  fail  by 
breaking  off  rather  than  by  pulling  out. 

*  Note — Mr,  D.  L.  Quinn,  late  Director  of  the  Forest  Products  Labora- 
tory, explains  nailing  tests  at  that  institution  as  follows: 

**The  holding  power  of  cement  coated,  plain,  and  barbed  nails  was 
obtained  by  testing  a  standard  7-penny  nail  driven  to  a  depth  of  1  inch  in 
dry  wood  and  is  given  below." 


Species  of  Wood  Used  in  the  Box 

Longleaf 

Basswood            Beech 

Load  in  pounds  per  nail 

Cement  coated 

250 
140 
110 

133 

82 
70 

430 

Plain  nails 

400 

Barbed  nails 

335 

^1 


If 


"^fc 


:\ 


:^ 


5* 


\: 


S  i 


§     ■     ^ 1 8 «- 

7/w  2M0   iind  at    ajymosv  founod  CaHi 


Figure  10. 


155 


156  EXPORT  PACKING 

^ '  The  diameter  of  a  nail  should  be  great  enough  so  that 
it  may  be  driven  easily,  which  is  usually  the  limiting 
factor,  but  should  not  be  so  small  that  it  will  break  in 
use.  It  should  be  such  that  with  the  weaving  of  the  pack- 
age in  transportation  and  the  shocks  of  handling  it  will 
not  be  bent  and  will  not  work  back  and  forth  to  its  full 
depth  in  the  wood.  The  proper  balance  is  reached  when 
there  is  an  equal  likelihood  of  the  wood  failing  or  of  the 
nails  breaking  off  or  pulling  from  the  end. 

^^Head  of  the  Nail. — As  a  ruk  the  head  of  the  nail  is 
too  small,  and  failure  of  the  box  occurs  because  the  head 
is  pulled  through  the  sides.  With  the  larger  heads  made 
in  accordance  with  the  ordinary  practice  the  material  is 
too  thin  and  the  head  breaks  off.  It  is  thought  that  a 
much  better  nail  can  be  made  than  is  being  produced  at 
the  present  time. 

**The  Wood. — The  species  of  wood  is  of  importance, 
since  each  species  has  certain  characteristics  of  weight 
and  hardness  which  indicate  its  ability  to  hold  nails,  its 
strength  and  its  likelihood  of  splitting,  and  thus  deter- 
mine the  proper  thickness  of  material  and  size  and 
spacing  of  nails. 

' '  The  most  significant  difference  in  the  various  species 
of  wood  is  in  their  dry  weight.  A  piece  of  lumber  of 
very  light  weight  has  but  little  wood  substance.  It  has 
been  shown  that  all  wood  substance  is  of  practically  the 
same  weight  and  that  the  weight  of  a  piece  of  dry  lumber, 
when  free  from  resinous  material,  is  an  indication  of  the 
amount  of  wood  substance  it  contains.  It  will  be  evident, 
therefore,  that  without  sufficient  wood  substance  it  is 
impossible  to  have  strength  or  nail-holding  power,  and 
that  the  more  wood  substance  there  is  in  a  given  species 
the  greater  its  strength  and  nail-holding  power  are  likely 
to  be. 

**  Figure  10  is  a  curve  in  which  has  been  plotted  the 
density  or  dry  weight  of  the  various  species  against  their 
ability  to  retain  nails  driven  into  side  grain.  In  this 
connection  it  may  be  noted  that,  with  practically  all  spe- 
cies, the  resistance  to  withdrawal  is  greater  if  the  nail  is 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS  157 

driven  into  the  side  grain  than  if  it  is  driven  into  the  end 
grain.  The  curve  shows  conclusively  that  the  heavier 
species  hold  nails  much  better.  As  a  rule  all  the  strength 
properties  of  wood  increase  with  the  weight.  When  a 
nail  is  driven  into  a  dense  piece  of  wood  it  produces  a 
much  greater  splitting  force  than  when  the  same  nail  is 
driven  into  a  soft  piece  of  wood.  A  dense  piece  of  wood 
has  greater  resistance  to  splitting  than  a  light  piece  of 
wood.  These  two  factors  tend  to  counterbalance  each 
other  but  do  not  do  so  entirely.  The  dense  species,  as  a 
rule,  will  split  somewhat  more  than  the  lighter  species 
with  the  same  nailing. 

**The  lockiness  of  grain  and  other  species  characteris- 
tics are  important  factors  in  determining  the  resistance 
to  splitting. 

**  Condition  of  Wood. — Green  wood  is  much  softer 
than  dry  wood,  and  the  nails  can  be  driven  in  and  with- 
drawn from  green  much  more  readily  than  from  dry 
wood. 

* '  The  moisture  content  of  wood,  when  green,  may  vary 
from  30  to  200  per  cent  of  the  dry  weight,  depending  on 
the  species  and  on  conditions  of  growth.  As  the  wood 
dries  it  first  loses  the  free  water  in  the  cells  and  after- 
wards that  from  the  cell  walls.  When  the  water  begins 
to  leave  the  cell  walls  the  wood  begins  to  shrink  in  both 
width  and  thickness  but  not  materially  in  length.  This 
causes  the  fibers,  which  are  bent  down  along  the  nail  as 
illustrated  in  photograph  fig.  9,  to  shrink  away  from  the 
nail  in  the  direction  of  the  end  grain,  in  which  direction 
the  nail  was  being  most  firmly  held  in  the  first  place. 
Thus  we  have  the  nail  which  has  been  driven  into  green 
material,  afterwards  dried,  held  only  by  two  sides.  The 
weaving  action  during  transportation  will  readily  cause 
such  nails  to  come  loose  and  work  out  of  the  box  without 
any  rough  handling,  and  the  boxes  will  not  stand  more 
than  10  per  cent  as  much  rough  handling  as  those  nailed 
up  at  15  per  cent  moisture  and  kept  in  practically  that 
condition. 

**A  nail  driven  into  a  dry  piece  of  wood  which  after- 


158  EXPORT  PACKING 

wards  is  allowed  to  become  soaked  and  then  dried  will 
act  as  does  a  nail  .driven  into  green  lumber. 

*^  Boxes  made  of  lumber  in  the  proper  moisture  condi- 
tion will  stand  ordinary  storage  without  any  appreciable 
loss  in  the  ability  of  the  nail  to  hold. 

**The  effect  of  over-driving  nails  is  to  reduce  their  re- 
sistance to^  withdrawal,  the  proportionate  reduction  prob- 
ably being  greater  in  the  case  of  dry  wood  than  in  green. 

**  Thickness  of  Material  and  Spacing  of  Nails. — After 
the  above  fundamentals  as  to  nails  and  wood,  considera- 
tion should  be  given  to  the  thickness  of  material  and  the 
spacing  of  nails. 

^'The  ends  of  the  boxes  must  be  of  such  thickness  that 
the  nails  will  not  run  out  under  ordinary  conditions. 
The  nails  must  be  small  enough  in.  diameter  so  that  they 
will  not  cause  splitting  of  the  material.  The  inclination 
to  split  is  increased  with  decreased  spacing.  The  spacing, 
then,  must  not  be  so  close  as  to  cause  splitting. 

^*  Experiments  have  been  made  and  a  great  many  ob- 
servations taken  on  the  splitting  of  material  by  nails. 
The  following  conclusions  have  been  drawn  and  appear 
to  be  substantiated  by  two  years  of  observation : 

^^In  using  the  slender  or  box  nail  in  species  of  medium 
hardness,  the  *  penny'  of  the  nail  cannot  be  greater  than 
the  thickness,  in  eighths  of  an  inch,  of  the  wood  which 
holds  the  point  of  the  nail. 

^^For  the  softer  woods  nails  may  be  one  *  penny' 
larger  and  sometimes  even  two  *  pennies.'  For  the  hard 
wood  nails  one  *  penny'  smaller  should  be  used. 

**The  ordinary  box  machine,  when  nailing  boxes  of  the 
sizes  usually  used  for  canned  foods,  cannot  space  the 
nails  close  enough  to  cause  splitting  of  the  ends  or  to 
develop  the  strength  of  the  lumber. 

'  *  The  following  rule  has  been  suggested  for  guidance 
in  the  spacing  of  nails  for  domestic^  shipment  : 

*^For  six  *  penny'  or  smaller  nails  held  in  the  side 
grain  there  should  be  a  spacing  of  2  inches,  and  for  the 

*See  Capt.  Knowlton's  chapter  on  Box  Construction  for  his  recom- 
mendations as  to  nailing  export  cases. 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS  159 

same  nail  in  the  end  grain  a  spacing  of  1%  inches.  For 
larger  nails  the  spacing  should  increase  %  inch  for  each 
*  penny/  To  a  great  many  people  this  spacing  will  ap- 
pear to  be  too  close,  since  it  gives  many  more  nails 
than  have  formerly  been  used.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  how- 
ever, it  is  only  about  two-thirds  of  the  number  that  can 
be  put  in  before  excessive  splitting  of  the  ends  is  encoun- 
tered, and  is  only  about  two-thirds  of  the  number  re- 
quired to  balance  fully  the  strength  of  the  box  in  other 
respects.  Therefore,  even  with  this  spacing,  the  nailing 
is  still  the  weakest  point  of  the  ordinary  box.'' 

Special  Box  Corner  Design  to  Prevent  Loosening  of 
Metal  Straps 

From  Technical  Notes  of  Forest  Products  Laboratory 

Metal  strapping  applied  to  a  box  made  of  thin  mate- 
rial cannot  be  fastened  by  nails  driven  into  the  edges  of 
the  boards,  but  must  be  joined  by  one  of  the  various 
fastening  devices  and  held  in  place  by  tension. 

When  first  applied,  the  strap  is  very  tight  and  no  diffi- 
culty is  experienced  in  keeping  it  on  the  box,  but  when 
the  box  is  stored  for  a  period  of  several  months  the 
shrinkage  of  the  lumber  usually  reduces  the  circumfer- 
ence to  such  an  extent  that  the  strap  falls  off  in  trans- 
portation. 

Such  loosening  of  the  straps  may  be  successfully  pre- 
vented on  canned  food  boxes  or,  in  fact,  on  any  box 
carrying  a  commodity  which  has  sufficient  strength  to 
resist  the  strap  tension,  by  building  the  box  in  such  a 
manner  that  neither  the  top  nor  the  bottom  laps  the  sides. 
The  accompanying  sketch  will  make  the  construction 
clear.  The  strap  is  applied  in  the  usual  manner  and 
drawn  very  snug.  The  tension  of  the  strap  is  sufficient 
to  spring  the  sides,  top  and  bottom  of  the  box  in  against 
the  contents  so  that  the  corner  boards  lap  in  the  center. 
As  a  result,  the  middle  of  the  box  is  smaller  than  the 
ends,  and  the  straps  will  not  slip  off,  even  thoughihe  box 
shrinks.    (See  sketch  page  160.) 


160 


EXPORT  PACKING 


Several  such  boxes  were  made  up  at  the  Forest  Prod- 
ucts Laboratory,  Madison,  Wisconsin,  of  lumber  contain- 
ing 15  to  20  per  cent  moisture  and,  after  packing  and 
strapping,  these  boxes  were  dried  to  a  moisture  content 
of  9  or  10  per  cent,  which  is  about  the  moisture  content 
they  would  come  to  in  a  heated  warehouse.  It  was  found 
that,  even  after  the  boxes  had  shrunk,  the  straps  could 
not  be  removed  from  them  without  cutting  away  the 
corners.  When  the  boxes  were  tested  in  the  revolving 
drum  the  straps  showed  a  tendency  to  work  toward  the 
center  rather  than  to  slip  over  the  ends. 


Courtesy  oj  Forest  Products  Laboratory 

Box  Handles  of  Webbing  Instead  of  Rope  Save 
Shipping  Space 


From  Technical  Notes  of  Forest  Froducts  iMboratory 

In  export  shipment,  boxes  loaded  with  200  to  300 
pounds  are  most  easily  manipulated  when  provided  with 
handles.  Usually  such  box  handles  are  made  of  rope,  in- 
serted through  holes  in  the  ends  of  the  box  and  secured 
with  wall  knots,  or  inserted  in  grooves  on  the  under  sides 
of  the  cleats  on  the  ends  of  the  box,  and  held  in  place  by 
nails  or  screws  driven  through  the  cleats. 


OFFICIAL  SPECIFICATIONS 


161 


The  former  method  of  fastening  has  the  disadvantage 
of  taking  up  valuable  space  in  the  interior  of  the  box. 
The  latter  increases  the  thickness  of  the  cleats  to  provide 
for  a  groove  of  sufficient  depth  to  hold  the  rope,  thereby 
increasing  the  displacement  of  the  box.  Since  the  rates 
for  export  shipments  are  virtually  based  upon  the  cubical 
contents  of  the  package,  the  displacement  is  an  important 
factor. 


y£ 

o 
o 

o 

o 
o 

y    _ 
o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 
o 

o 
o 
o 

^ 

o 

1 

1 

«^ 

^ 

o 

0 

& 

o 

3 

(J 

b 

^ 

Courtesy  of  Forest  Products  Laboratory 


A  box  handle  made  of  webbing  instead  of  rope  has 
been  suggested  by  the  Forest  Products  Laboratory  as  a 
means  of  conserving  space.  For  this  purpose  webbing 
about  %  in.  thick  and  IVs  ^^-  wide,  which  has  a  breaking 
strength  of  800  lbs.,  should  prove  suitable.  It  may  be 
inserted  through  saw-cuts  made  parallel  to  the  grain  in 
the  ends  of  the  box,  turned  down  flat  inside,  and  nailed 
securely  with  large  headed  roofing  nails. 

Such  a  handle  takes  up  no  extra  space  either  inside 
or  outside  of  the  box.  It  is  easily  made  and  has  a  lifting 
strength  with  a  large  margin  of  safety. 


CHAPTER  VI 
BALING  VERSUS  CASINO 

By  David  T.  Abercrombie  ^ 

THE  men  in  charge  of  government  packing  during 
the  war  were  face  to  face  with  the  necessity  of 
getting  goods  to  the  other  side  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible, at  a  time  when  the  amount  of  cargo  space  available 
was  exceedingly  small.  It  was  our  business  to  see  that 
the  problem  was  met  and  that  the  extreme  handicaps  of 
the  situation  were  overcome,  and  with  this  end  in  view 
methods  were  adopted  which  were  termed  radical ;  under 
normal  conditions  they  would  probably  not  have  been 
used  or  would  have  been  adopted  very  gradually.  The 
results  proved,  however,  that  in  all  cases  the  spur  of 
necessity  was  highly  productive,  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  experience  obtained  during  the  period  of  war 
effort  is  a  splendid  heritage  for  the  department  of  over- 
seas packing;  similarly  the  experience  in  other  branches 
of  organized  government  war-effort  will  enjoy  wide  ap- 
plication in  the  industrial  development  of  the  future. 

Before  the  war  baling  was  a  method  used  both  in 
domestic  and  overseas  packing  for  raw  material  and 
piece  goods,  but  the  extensive  application  adopted  during 
the  strenuous  war-effort  had  not  been  made  in  com- 
mercial work.  I  had  used  various  types  of  bales  in  my 
own  business,  but  the  larger  use  of  these  methods  had,  I 
believe,  not  been  attempted  and  the  problem  of  baling 
had  certainly  not  been  attacked  with  anything  like  the 
vigor  or  completeness  that  were  made  necessary  by  the 
exigencies  of  war.     To  illustrate  this  point,  in  my  own 

*  Officer  in  charge  Packing  Division,  Zone  Supply  Office,  New  York, 
1918-1919.  Chief,  Packing  Service  Branch,  Director  of  Storage,  War 
Department,  Washington,  D.  C,  1919.  President,  the  Abercrombie  Corpora- 
tion, New  York  City,  expert  packing  for  export. 

162 


^^ 


BALING  VERSUS  CASING  163 

business  we  had  developed  a  very  good  bale  for  clothing, 
but  our  experience  was  limited  to  only  a  few  articles, 
while  in  the  baling  work  for  the  army  we  had  to  care  for 
a  variety  of  commodities  which  superficially  would  seem 
to  be  unfitted  for  baling  practice.  When  one  day  our 
department  was  presented  with  some  327  dozen  saws  and 
it  was  our  business  to  pack  them  in  a  rush,  obviously  we 
had  something  quite  new  and  an  article  which  hardly 
seemed  adapted  to  the  work  we  were  doing,  and  yet  we 
baled  those  saws,  saved  costly  space  and  made  an  excel- 
lent shipment.  As  time  went  on  we  baled  many  other 
commodities  which  would  seem  to  be  far  removed  from 
the  possibilities  of  my  department.  There  are  certain 
things  you  cannot  bale,  such  as  will  not  stand  compres- 
sion, but  whenever  a  group  of  commodities  presented  a 
new  packing  angle  we  could  in  the  majority  of  cases 
decide  to  bale  them  with  every  probability  of  success. 

In  one  plant  our  average  production  the  first  month 
was  thirteen  tons  a  day,  and  we  thought  this  was  very 
good  work,  but  in  the  month  of  May,  1918,  our  daily  out- 
put was  310  tons  a  day,  and  this  average  was  maintained 
constantly  until  the  armistice  was  signed.  We  were  ready 
then  with  the  new  methods  and  machines  we  had  in- 
augurated  to  increase  our  production  to  600  tons  daily, 
for  the  baling  department  had  been  called  on  to  perform 
a  far  more  comprehensive  work  than  before.  We  were 
ready  to  pack  the  increase  before  deliveries  began,  and 
the  armistice  was  the  reason  for  cancellations  instead  of 
deliveries.  The  results  obtained  were  very  important, 
and  the  practice  that  ruled  during  the  war  is  now  being 
applied  to  normal  industrial  work,  while  the  extension 
of  this  practice  that  was  prevented  by  the  termination  of 
the  war  is  being  perfected. 

I  am  perhaps  giving  the  impression  that  baling  as 
packing  practice  is  as  yet  not  widely  in  use,  and  if  I  am 
giving  this  impression  it  is  correct  but  only  in  one  sense. 
The  technique  of  baling  in  the  shipment  of  raw  and 
piece  goods  both  to  points  within  the  United  States  and 
overseas  is  used,  and  there  is  a  beginning  of  baling  some 


164    .  EXPORT  PACKING 

manufactured  goods,  but  I  do  not  believe  that  the  bale  is 
as  yet  employed  to  anything  like  the  extent  that  could  be 
done  if  the  advantaged  and  savings  of  this  method  were 
fully  appreciated  and  the  force  of  habit  could  be  broken. 
The  savings  are  extremely  important  and  goods  properly 
baled  are  better  packed  than  cased  goods,  and  in  every 
case  baled  goods  will  arrive  at  destination  in  far  better 
shape  than  the  same  goods  cased,  while  the  economy 
effected  by  the  use  of  the  bale  cannot  be  obtained  by  the 
use  of  any  case  yet  devised,  either  as  to  cost  of  material 
or  labor.  To  illustrate  the  points  made  here  I  am  going 
to  make  use  of  my  records  obtained  during  the  war ;  the 
work  during  this  period  was  on  such  a  vast  scale  and 
covered  so  many  different  commodities  that  no  ordinary 
commercial  records  could  give  as  much  information. 

Economy  of  Process. — After  the  signing  of  the  armis- 
tice goods  shipped  to  France  began  to  come  back  to  us 
in  the  original  bales,  and  among  this  great  mass  I  remem- 
ber two  bales  containing  460  pairs  of  leggings  which  came 
back  to  us  in  just  as  good  shape  as  they  left  the  country. 
It  happened  that  the  balance  of  this  shipment  of  leggings 
was  packed  in  cases,  and  when  these  came  back  we  found 
that  many  of  the  cases  had  been  broken  in  shipment  and 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  contents  lost  and  damaged. 
The  two  bales  took  up  a  little  over  six  cubic  feet  and  cost 
the  Government  $6.60  to  return  to  tlie  United  States, 
while  the  cost  of  the  same  quantity  of  the  same  goods  in 
cases  was  $30.80.  This  is  a  difference  of  more  than  five 
and  one-quarter  (5^/4 )  cents  on  every  pair  of  leggings  for 
freight  alone,  an  amount  of  money  that  would  represent 
a  big  portion  of  the  profit  to  any  one  handling  the  line. 
I  could  multiply  this  example  by  hundreds  of  a  similar 
character,  but  this  is  sufficient  to  show  immediately  that 
where  it  is  possible  to  bale  goods  no  other  method  should 
be  used. 

Another  great  saving  that  is  made  by  baling  goods  is 
in  the  tare,  for  baled  goods  will  save  97  per  cent  in  tare 
as  compared  with  cased  goods.  When  we  entered  the  war 
we  were  packing  in  cases  overcoats,  blouses,  underwear, 


BALING  VERSUS  CASING  165 

breeches — in  fact  everything  that  a  soldier  uses,  and  it 
was  a  regular  thing  (QMC  Manual)  to  require  48  pounds 
of  overcoats  packed  in  40  pounds  of  case.  In  1917  and 
after  it  was  very  difficult  to  buy  cases  and  we  could  not 
be  particular  about  what  sort  of  wood  was  used.  In  con- 
sequence vast  quantities  of  yellow  pine  were  bought  and 
made  up  into  cases,  and  these  cases  often  weighed  more 
than  90  pounds,  and  this  90  pounds  of  case  had  to  be 
shipped  not  alone  to  Europe  but  all  over  the  United 
States,  enriching  the  express  companies,  it  is  true,  but 
costing  the  Government  large  sums  of  money.  We  paid 
as  high  as  $14  per  hundred  pounds  when  we  had  to  send 
goods  to  the  far  west,  and  it  does  not  take  much  effort  to 
figure  the  immense  loss  when  48  pounds  of  goods  had  to 
go  in  90  pounds  of  case,  and  when  on  every  pound  14 
cents  or  more  had  to  be  paid  for  transportation  and  in 
addition  an  excessive  price  had  to  be  paid  for  cases.  If 
we  had  used  then  as  we  did  in  January,  1918,  bale  pack- 
ing we  would  have  saved  45  per  cent  in  transportation, 
70  per  cent  in  space  and  82  per  cent  in  the  cost  of  packing 
materials  for  the  war.  Our  saving  throughout  the  whole 
period,  calculating  a  list  of  141  articles  packed  in  stand- 
ard 4  cubic  ft.  bales  and  also  in  standard  (previous  to 
January,  1918)  6  1/5  cubic  ft.  cases  is  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing ratios : 

This  comparison  is  based  on  an  equal  quantity  of 
goods  in  each  one  of  the  ratios. 

Number  of  packages 1  (Bale)  to  2.1     (Cases) 

Cubic  ft.  of  space 1  (Bale)  to  3 .94  (Cases) 

Cost  of  container 1  (Bale)  to  5 .50  (Cases) 

Packers'  cost  (labor) 1  (Bale)  to  2 .50  (Cases) 

Up  to  November,  1918,  the  amount  baled  in  the  New 
York  District  was  a  little  over  137,000  ship  tons,  and 
although  no  one  knows  exactly  what  it  cost  to  send  over 
a  ship  ton,  there  was  an  arbitrary  cost  adopted  in  Wash- 
ington of  $240.00.  However,  I  know  of  a  good  many 
instances  where  the  cost  was  nearer  $340.00  a  ship  ton, 
and  there  was  an  instance  of  a  shipment  where  the  cost 
ran  as  high  as  $22.50  a  cubic  foot.    I  believe  that  when 


166  EXPORT  PACKING 

the  bill  is  finally  settled  and  all  the  costs  of  convoys, 
losses  and  other  incidental  expenses  are  figured  out  that 
$10  a  cubic  foot  would  represent  a  fraction  of  the  real 
cost.  The  fact  that  $6  a  cubic  foot  or  $240.00  a  ton,  is 
the  price  that  has  been  fixed  probably  will  not  affect  the 
result  so  far  as  the  individual  citizen  is  concerned,  for 
the  money  has  been  spent  and  we  have  got  to  pay  it. 

But  what  does  interest  the  individual  citizen  is  that 
this  great  cost  was  not  altogether  unproductive,  for  out 
of  this  immense  transportation  task  certain  absolute 
facts  were  developed  which  will  mean  great  savings  to 
the  people  in  the  future.  To  put  the  situation  in  a  dif- 
ferent form  it  may  be  safely  stated,  that  the  saving  to 
the  Quartermaster  Corps  resulting  from  the  use  of  bales 
instead  of  cases  was  over  $100,000,000.  Had  the  war  con- 
tinued we  should  have  been  able  to  bring  about  still 
greater  saving,  and  had  we  been  prepared  to  use  bales 
at  the  start  we  would  have  cut  out  big  slices  in  the 
nation's  bill  of  expenses. 

With  reference  to  warehousing,  the  use  of  bales  shows 
important  savings  in  rent,  for  baled  goods  not  only  occupy 
less  space  than  cased  goods,  but  they  can  be  stowed  much 
more  compactly.  I  believe  it  is  safe  to  say  that  fully 
70  per  cent  in  space  is  saved  by  baling.  There  is  great 
saving  in  dunnage,  and  another  important  saving  arises 
from  the  relatively  small  space  occupied  by  a  baling 
plant  as  compared  with  that  absorbed  by  a  casing  plant. 
In  the  latter  the  wood  of  which  the  cases  are  made  is 
itself  bulky,  and  the  manufactured  cases  occupy  a  great 
deal  of  valuable  floor  space,  which  in  these  times  of  in- 
adequate storage  space  and  high  rents  is  a  considera- 
tion of  great  importance.  The  baling  plant,  on  the  other 
hand,  occupies  less  than  one-sixth  of  the  space  taken  up 
by  the  casing  plant,  the  material  of  which  the  bales  are 
made  can  be  most  compactly  stored,  and  there  is  no  space 
taken  up  by  an  intermediate  product  represented  in  the 
casing  plant  by  the  unfilled  box. 

We  have  thus  clearly  demonstrated  important  savings 
in  the  chief  factors  of  shipping  expenses :  we  have  saving 


Use  of  Forming  Machine. 
Oarments  bricked   in  forming  machine  for  construction  of  preliminary  laic. 

167 


Operating  a  Hand  Press. 
108 


BALING  VERSUS  CASING  169 

in  space  and  consequent  saving  in  the  cost  of  any  form 
of  transportation ;  we  have  saving  in  tare,  which  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  in  shipments  going  to  foreign  coun- 
tries or  anywhere ;  we  have  saving  in  the  cost  of  the  pack- 
age, which  to-day  is  an  element  of  the  utmost  importance, 
and  we  have  saving  in  the  space  occupied  by  the  shipping 
department,  another  very  important  item  in  the  total  cost. 
And  to  these  economies  must  be  added  the  equally  im- 
portant one  that  the  bale  will  travel  where  the  case 
hardly  can,  that  the  goods  are  abundantly  and  fully  pro- 
tected, that  the  range  of  adaptability  of  the  bale  runs 
from  socks  to  overcoats,  from  water  bags  to  cooks  ^  caps, 
from  nose  bags  to  tents.  Another  great  saving  is  that  of 
natural  conservation ;  in  our  baling  a  bale  used  2%  yards 
of  burlap;  the  same  amount  of  goods  require  60  feet 
B.M.  of  lumber  when  cased.  Burlap  grows  two  crops  a 
year ;  lumber  takes  30  years  to  grow ;  acreage  is  as  1  to  60. 

Possibilities  of  Commercial  Use. — It  seems  to  me  that 
I  must  emphasize  here  the  effect  that  this  war  work  has 
had  on  civilian  trade,  for  as  I  understand  it  the  purpose 
of  this  treatise  on  packing  is  not  to  show  anything  new  to 
the  man  who  has  solved  his  packing  problems  through 
long  years  of  grief  and  struggle,  but  to  tell  the  newcomer 
something  of  what  can  be  done  and  should  be  done  in 
packing  overseas  goods.  Up  to  the  time  we  started  our 
work  of  compressing  fabricated  goods  I  knew  of  no  con- 
cern that  made  a  practice  of  compressing  fully  made-up 
clothing.  As  I  have  stated,  I  had  done  this  work  in  a 
small  way  in  my  own  business,  but  when  I  called  the 
attention  of  the  authorities  to  the  possibilities  of  the 
method  I  was  told  flatly  and  simply  that  it  could  not  be 
done.  I  was  told  it  would  break  the  buttons,  that  the 
goods  could  never  be  freed  from  the  creasing  incident 
to  baling  processes,  that  it  was  a  fool  idea  and  a  great 
many  other  things  equally  theoretical  which  were  proved 
in  actual  practice  to  be  incorrect. 

When  a  man  walks  on  a  carpet,  say  he  weighs  200 
pounds,  the  actual  pressure  is  fully  1,200  pounds  to  the 
square  inch  maximum,  as  one-sixth  of  a  square  inch  is 


170  EXPORT  PACKING 

about  as  much  as  is  in  contact  as  his  foot  first  falls.  It 
is  a  fact  known  to  all  of  us  that  hotels  and  other  buildings 
where  foot  traffic  is  heavy  almost  invariably  use  a  heavy 
pile  fabric  for  carpets,  as  it  has  been  proved  that  this 
class  of  floor  covering  lasts  longer  and  costs  less  per  diem 
than  any  other  suitable  material.  Returning  to  the  but- 
tons, I  folded  up  some  overcoats  (September,  1917)  and 
sent  them  to  a  laboratory  at  my  own  expense,  as  I  had  not 
learned  then  how  to  get  the  Government  to  pay  for  such 
things,  and  I  found  that  we  could  put  on  a  pressure  of 
many  tons  before  the  button  collapsed,  and  then  the  metal 
buttons  or  shanks  did  not  cut  the  fabric.  It  was  a  simple 
natter  to  calculate  then  that  if  we  kept  a  certain  maximum 
we  could  use  any  pressure  under  this  in  making  up  our 
bales  of  clothing.  I  already  knew  that  92  pounds  is  a 
weight  that  one  man  can  handle  most  economically,  and 
we  accepted,  that  as  the  standard  weight  for  a  package. 
Then  I  investigated  the  specific  gravity  of  clothing  and 
equipage  and  we  calculated  that  this  would  average  less 
than  four  cubic  feet  for  92  pounds. 

The  best  package  therefore  we  decided  would  measure 
(average)  four  cubic  feet;  it  should  be  twice  as  long  as 
broad  and  a  little  less  in  height  than  in  width,  weigh  92 
pounds  and  would,  to  be  exact,  be  15  x  30  x  14  inches. 
The  covering  was  10  oz.  burlap  for  outside,  with  two 
sheets  of  expansive  (both  ways)  paraffined  baling  paper 
for  interlining;  on  rare  occasions  we  doubled  the  covering. 
This  package  is  the  correct  size  for  handling  during  the 
baling  process;  it  fitted  the  French  cars  and  American 
escort  wagons  and  automobile  trucks,  and  could  be 
handled  by  one  person  of  any  nationality,  and  we  put 
more  clothing  in  a  freight  car  than  had  ever  been  accom- 
modated before,  loading  many  of  the  articles  to  the 
capacity  of  the  car.  And  this  result  was  obtained  in  a 
short  time  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  when  we  started  we 
did  not  have  any  machines  nor  was  there  a  machine  made 
that  was  adapted  for  the  work.  Day  after  day  we  packed 
millions  of  articles  in  our  New  York  plant,  16,000  pairs  of 
socks  in  every  ton,  300  overcoats  to  the  ton  and  so  on 


i^t.- 


BALING  VERSUS  CASING  171 

through  all  the  list  of  things  that  fighting  men  need  when 
they  are  in  the  field.  Over  the  river  at  Bush  Terminal 
No.  22,  where  the  first  plant  was  established,  the  bale 
was  shown  to  be  a  method  in  overseas  packing  that  could 
accomplish  astonishing  things,  and  that  could  effect 
economies  of  time  and  money  that  were  absolutely  out  of 
the  question  by  any  other  method.  When  we  were  pack- 
ing 340  tons  a  day  the  complete  organization  numbered 
some  2,230  persons,  and  this  number  included  the  re- 
ceivers, routers,  inspectors,  warehousemen  and  shippers. 

Organization  of  a  Department. — Careful  routing  of 
the  goods  is  very  important  in  any  well-organized  plant, 
and  the  plant  should  not  be  put  in  operation  until  ex- 
periment has  shown  that  the  routing  is  correct.  The  op- 
erations in  baling  are  very  clqsely  related,  and  the  more 
the  work  tables  can  be  grouped  and  the  closer  together 
all  working  elements  can  be  arranged  just  that  much  will 
be  gained  in  efficiency  and  speed.  There  were  certain  de- 
tails in  our  work,  such  as  receiving  and  inspecting  and 
checking,  that  will  not  enter  into  the  average  commercial 
equipment  and  will  not  be  a  part  of  the  baling  depart- 
ment, but  with  us  the  checking  and  receiving  were  in- 
timately related  to  the  baling  department,  so  that  once 
installed  the  system  worked  automatically.  But  through- 
out the  whole  process  every  movement  was  related  to  the 
ultimate  purpose :  the  shipment  of  a  bale.  A  bale  was 
completed  40  minutes  after  receiving  the  goods. 

Another  important  consideration  is  the  fixing  of  re- 
sponsibility for  mistakes  in  packing,  and  this  can  be  done 
perfectly  with  our  method.  Each  bale  carried  a  num- 
bered tag  signed  by  every  one  who  worked  on  that  bale. 
In  each  of  our  packages  that  made  up  a  bale  there  was 
enclosed  a  slip,  and  all  persons  having  to  do  with  the 
work  on  that  particular  package  signed  their  names,  no 
matter  what  the  character  of  the  work,  inspecting  or  fold- 
ing. When  the  goods  reached  the  other  side,  if  there  was 
a  defect,  all  that  was  necessary  was  to  return  the  slip 
with  the  statement  of  complaint,  and  the  matter  could  be 
absolutely  traced  to  the  inspector  or  folder  at  fault. 


172  EXPORT  PACKING 

When  the  bale  was  shipped  the  tag  was  cut  from  the  bale 
and  retained,  leaving  the  number  on  the  bale.  Thus  a 
record  was  kept. 

How  to  Bale. — In  folding  goods  for  baling  each  article 
is  folded  in  its  own  way  and  made  into  a  package  of  a 
certain  number.  The  idea  here  is  to  obtain  the  same  num- 
ber of  laminations  in  each  package  of  goods  entering  the 
bale,  and  this  similarity  in  folding  must  obtain  whether 
goods  be  mosquito  bars  or  trousers.  With  this  identity 
of  folding  in  each  separate  piece  of  goods  it  is  also  easy 
to  obtain  perfect  compactness  and  uniformity  in  width 
and  length,  which  are  so  necessary  to  any  successful 
baling  operation;  then  the  correct  number  of  packages 
are  laid  to  make  up  a  bale,  and  when  pressure  is  applied 
you  get  a  minimum  size  bale  for  the  amount  of  goods  it 
contains. 

In  practice  we  found  that  the  results  described  in  the 
above  paragraph  were  little  short  of  remarkable  when 
compared  with  former  results.  Under  the  system  of  pack- 
ing first  used  only  50  blankets  were  cased  into  a  ship  ton, 
but  with  our  baling  system  we  put  256  into  the  same 
space.  We  put  962  mosquito  bars  where  formerly  only 
116  had  been  placed,  and  the  whole  secret  of  this  result 
was  in  so  folding  the  goods  that  absolute  uniformity  in 
the  size  of  package  was  obtained.  We  had  a  standard 
size  for  our  bales  and  this  size  was  used  no  matter  what 
the  goods :  blankets,  gloves,  breeches,  blouses,  overcoats, 
caps,  hospital  tents,  and  so  forth. 

Another  important  point  is  the  density  of  the  bale,  for 
unless  the  proper  density  is  obtained  much  of  the  virtue 
is  taken  out  of  the  work.  Cotton  has  been  baled  for  a 
good  many  years  in  the  south  and  one  would  suppose  that 
the  wide  experience  incident  to  that  work  had  solved  the 
question  of  proper  density.  But  we  packed  some^of  our 
garments  in  bales  that  had  nearly  twice  the  density  of  a 
bale  of  cotton,  although  our  goods  were  not  a  raw  fiber 
that  admits  of  almost  any  compression,  but  manufactured 
goods,  many  of  which  had  parts  more  or  less  susceptible 
to  damage. 


Standard  and  Commercial  Bales. 
Former  ,„rasures  k  cu.  It-  <^nd  c<mtainB  H  c<ymfortaUeB;  latter  measures  20 
cu.  ft.  and  cwitains  12. 


Standard  Bale  and  Case. 
Bale  measures  k  cu.  ft.  and  contains  tivice  as  many  units  as  case  measurrng 

6   CM.  ft. 


Example  of  Poor  Packing. 
THe  TL  S.  Army  pacMn,  ser^ee  f<n.nd  tUat  l>ales  in  many  instances  v^Uhstood 


rough  liandling  better  than  cases. 


173 


On  the  Bridge  at  Galatea. 
Shows  method  of  transporting  furniture  in  Turkey. 


Courtesy  of  The  Americas. 

Example  of  Poor  Crating. 

Crate  containinff  automobile  wheels  wMch  was  hroken  when  it  arrived  at  its 
destination. 


BALING  VERSUS  CASING  175 

Twenty-four  tons  pressure  on  a  surface  of  450  square 
inches  harmed  nothing.  Our  officers'  uniforms  carried 
splendidly,  so  did  our  fur  caps,  fur  gloves  and  fur  Paakas 
to  Siberia.  Fur  caps,  the  most  expensive  things  we 
shipped,  $3,000  worth  in  a  bale,  arrived  safely  at  destina- 
tion and  not  a  single  complaint  was  made  on  account  of 
loss  or  stealing. 

In  making  up  the  bale  the  packages  were  placed  one  on 
top  of  the  other  in  layers  like  masonry.  The  bales  were 
protected  with  waterproof  expansive  paper  covering  be- 
sides the  regular  burlap  covering.  Many  of  these  bales 
crossed  the  water,  suffered  exposure  that  rusted  the  metal 
bands  almost  completely  through,  and  yet  came  back  to 
the  United  States  with  the  goods  inside  just  as  smooth 
and  perfect  as  the  day  they  left  our  shores,  showing 
beyond  question  that  burlap  and  paper  make  as  sturdy 
a  protective  envelope  as  any  case  that  was  ever  devised. 
Cased  goods  returned  were  a  mess.  The  stealing  from 
the  bales  was  practically  nil,  for  in  this  class  of  packing 
it  is  very  difficult  for  a  package  or  piece  to  be  removed ; 
to  do  so  a  steel  band  must  be  cut,  and  that  would  not 
escape  detection.  It  is  true  that  we  lost  an  occasional 
bale  as  well  as  case,  but  tampering  with  the  bale  itself 
and  removal  of  contents  was  practically  unknown.  Our 
records  show  that  there  was  one  complaint  of  mismarking 
to  30,000  bales.  This,  I  think,  is  a  very  good  record 
indeed. 

Another  interesting  point  about  the  bale  was  the 
salvage  value  of  the  material  used  in  covering.  When 
wooden  cases  got  to  France  and  were  opened  at  the  front 
they  could  not  be  burned  because  of  the  smoke,  and  they 
could  not  be  well  used  for  other  purposes.  The  covering 
of  the  bale,  on  the  contrary,  came  in  splendidly  for  many 
uses,  particularly  for  sandbags,  each  piece  of  burlap  hav- 
ing been  cut  to  make  two  sandbags. 

Marking. — Our  bales  were  marked  with  numbers,  each 
number  designating  a  particular  commodity,  and  the 
same  method  could  be  profitably  used  in  a  great  deal  of 
export  work.    It  does  not  matter  what  language  a  man 


176  EXPORT  PACKING 

speaks,  he  may  be  Chinese,  African  or  Portuguese,  but 
this  notwithstanding  he  will  learn  immediately  the  sig- 
nificance of  a  number,  while  printed  or  painted  words 
would  be  unintelligible.  And  so  we  used  a  four-inch  black 
number  on  a  buff  background  that  could  be  distinguished 
a  long  way  off.  We  had  a  series  of  basic  numbers  and 
another  of  subsidiary  numbers.  For  example^  *^15^' 
stood  for  overcoats,  as  that  was  the  quantity  put  into  a 
bale,  and  when  the  **15*'  had  a  number  **40*'  by  the  side 
of  it,  separated  by  a  dash,  this  was  a  bale  of  overcoats 
size  40,  the  left-hand  number  denoting  the  quantity  in  the 
bale,  i.  e.,  15.  This  was  done  throughout.  There  were 
different  sorts  of  gauntlets :  heavy  leather,  lined,  chauf- 
feur, and  so  on.  Each  had  its  basic  number  and  another 
number  alongside  to  designate  the  particular  size  of 
glove.  In  a  short  time  we  found  that  the  men  became 
acquainted  with  the  numbers  and  rarely  made  a  mistake. 
This  helped  greatly  in  warehousing.  We  found  the  ques- 
tion of  hooks  was  solved  by  having  ears  on  the  bales  for 
handles,  and  the  moderate  weight  rendered  hooks  un- 
necessary. 

Doubtless  there  are  questions  that  I  have  not  answered 
and  that  will  occur  to  every  reader,  but  the  space  at  my 
disposal  does  not  permit  a  lengthier  discussion  of  the 
subject  of  baling.  The  point  I  have  tried  to  make  here  is 
that  of  the  value  of  baling  as  a  shipping  and  packing 
method,  and  I  believe  that  what  I  have  said  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  cause  investigation  on  the  part  of  the  individual 
shipper.  If  this  is  done  the  correctness  of  my  statements 
and  conclusions  will  be  fully  demonstrated. 

It  should  be  appreciated  that  I  have  attempted  here 
to  show  clearly  the  tremendous  possibilities  in  the  baling 
of  goods,  and  in  our  practice  with  overseas  shipments 
during  the  war  we  found  that  there  were  very  few  com- 
modities that  could  not  be  satisfactorily  baled.  However, 
I  do  not  wish  any  shipper  to  assume  that  the  practice 
illustrated  is  suitable  in  all  commercial  transactions.  In 
the  case  of  shoes,  hardware  and  other  goods,  bulk  ship- 
ments in  bales  should  be  made  only  after  an  understand- 


BALING  VERSUS  CASING  177 

ing  has  been  reached  with  the  consignee  that  such  form 
of  packing  would  be  satisfactory.  It  is  quite  possible 
that  consignees  would  desire  shoes,  hardware,  ready- 
made  clothing  and  other  commodities  packed  in  certain 
form  and  in  cases  rather  than  in  bales,  and  the  shipper 
must  be  thoroughly  sure  of  the  wishes  of  the  consignee 
before  proceeding  to  make  up  the  package.  The  point 
that  I  have  desired  to  stress  in  this  article  is  that  the  bale 
offers  a  most  economical  and  useful  means  of  packing 
and  shipping  goods,  and  that  the  possibilities  of  this 
method  should  be  always  considered  in  any  packing 
problem. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  FOREST  PRODUCTS  LABORATORY 
AT  MADISON,  WISCONSIN 

TEN  years  ago  the  Forest  Service  of  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  established  the  Forest 
Products  Laboratory  on  the  Campus  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin,  at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  and  the 
record  of  the  laboratory  during  the  period  of  its  exis- 
tence has  been  one  of  incalculable  usefulness  to  the 
Government  and  to  the  nation  at  large.  At  first  the 
laboratory  occupied  one  small  building  and  had  a  meagre 
annual  appropriation  for  its  support,  but  so  important 
a  place  has  it  taken  in  the  work  to  which  it  is  devoted 
and  so  extensive  has  its  cooperation  become  with  the 
Government  and  business  interests  of  the  country,  that 
to-day  it  occupies  several  large  buildings,  its  personnel 
numbers  over  two  hundred  people  and  it  is  receiving 
nearly  a  half  million  dollars  a  year  for  its  support. 
It  is  without  doubt  one  of  the  world's  greatest  industrial 
laboratories,  and  so  thoroughly  has  it  proved  its  useful- 
ness that  a  number  of  large  organizations  are  now  con- 
structing laboratories  of  their  own,  modeled  after  the 
one  at  Madison.  So  far  as  we  know,  Canada  is  the  only 
foreign  country  that  possesses  a  similar  institution,  and 
this  was  planned  along  the  lines  laid  down  at  the  plant 
in  the  United  States. 

Its  Service  to  Export  Manufacturers  and  Shippers.— 
In  one  of  its  bulletins  the  Forest  Products  Laboratory 
states  that  **no  industrial  research  is  complete  until  its 
results  have  received  commercial  demonstration  and  the 
industry  concerned  is  reaping  the  benefits.  It  is  essential, 
therefore,  that  proper  contact  be  maintained  between  the 
industrial  research  laboratory  and  the  industries  which 
it  serves."    This  we  believe  expresses  in  a  few  words  the 

178 


THE  FOREST  PRODUCTS  LABORATORY   179 

spirit  and  purpose  of  this  most  interesting  and  helpful 
organization,  and  also  illustrates  the  practical  coopera- 
tion that  is  given  the  business  world.  The  services  of  the 
laboratory  are  available  to  the  export  manufacturer  and 
shipper,  and  the  expert  knowledge  of  its  staff  is  brought 
to  bear  on  the  special  problems,  either  at  no  cost  or  for 
a  nominal  fee,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  case. 

The  officials  of  the  laboratory  urge  that  information 
be  solicited  and  every  effort  will  be  made  to  give  as  full 
and  complete  an  answer  to  the  inquiry  as  possible.  The 
results  of  the  laboratory's  work  are  published  in  the 
form  of  bulletins  issued  by  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, in  the  form  of  articles  in  the  trade  press,  and  there 
is  a  service  of  mimeographed  reports  which  are  available 
upon  request. 

When  special  cooperative  work  is  undertaken  by  the 
laboratory  there  is  a  charge  for  the  service,  the  re- 
muneration, however,  being  reduced  to  the  extent  to 
which  the  work  is  purely  experimental  and  of  value 
chiefly  to  the  laboratory. 

The  laboratory  is  always  open  to  visitors,  and  those 
whose  interest  is  merely  general  are  shown  through  the 
various  departments  and  the  work  carefully  explained. 
Those  who  come  to  the  laboratory  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  specific  technical  data  or  to  obtain  help  in  the 
solution  of  some  specific  problem,  are  directed  to  the 
proper  office  and  every  effort  is  made  to  render  the  serv- 
ice required.  Reports  state  that  it  is  not  uncommon  for 
visitors  to  spend  a  week  or  more  at  the  laboratory,  study- 
ing data  and  consulting  with  different  members  of  the 
staff,  and  from  time  to  time  special  one  or  two-week 
courses  are  given  on  subjects  within  the  province  of  the 
work,  for  example,  on  kiln  drying,  box  design,  manufac- 
ture and  use  of  plywood,  glues,  and  so  forth. 

As  time  and  funds  permit  the  members  of  the  staff 
make  special  trips,  problems  are  studied  at  first  hand  in 
private  plants,  and  demonstrations  are  made  in  factories 
of  new  processes  which  develop  from  the  research  work 
of  the  laboratory.    Likewise  the  meetings  of  associations 


180  EXPORT  PACKING 

are  attended  by  members  of  the  staff  and  lectures  are 
given,  frequently  illustrated,  on  special  subjects. 

Examples  of  Its  Work. — In  1917  the  Forest  Products 
Laboratory  was  designated  by  the  Ordnance  Department 
for  the  solution  of  container  problems,  and  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  war  was  shortened  measurably  by  the 
fact  that  the  laboratory  designed  containers  that  made 
possible  larger  and  quicker  shipments  to  the  soldiers  in 
France.  In  redesigning  a  case  fitted  to  carry  140  pounds 
of  powder  14  per  cent  of  cargo  space  was  saved ;  a  Gov- 
ernment school  for  packers  was  established  at  the  lab- 
oratory, and  one  of  the  men  designed  a  box  that  saved 
the  Government  $100,000  in  freight  in  six  months;  an- 
other case  for  packing  soap  was  re-designed  with  a 
saving  of  43  per  cent,  and  on  the  first  shipment  the  Gov- 
ernment saved  $414,000;  a  case  for  carrying  two 
Browning  guns  was  re-designed  with  a  saving  of  28  per 
cent,  and  this  meant  a  saving  of  $5.77  on  every  two  guns 
shipped,  and  for  many  months  the  shipments  were  900 
guns  a  day;  a  box  designed  for  the  regular  army  rifle 
saved  one-third  of  the  former  space,  which  meant 
$1,500,000  on  every  shipment  of  a  million  rifles ;  the  losses 
suffered  by  the  Government  from  poor  packing  were  re- 
duced by  the  Forest  Products  Laboratory  to  15  per  cent 
of  what  they  had  been  before  packages  perfected  in  the 
laboratory  were  used. 

Other  Branches  of  Its  Work. — The  activities  of  the 
laboratory,  however,  are  not  restricted  simply  to  the 
solution  of  packing  problems,  although  this  is  the  work 
that  chiefly  concerns  the  scope  of  this  book.  The  lab- 
oratory also  devotes  itself  to  any  problems  related  to 
lumbering,  physics  of  timber,  mechanics  of  timber,  wood 
preservation,  derivative  products  of  wood,  wood  pa- 
thology and  pulp  and  paper.  In  this  last  commodity  the 
laboratory  has  a  most  interesting  field  and  one  that 
affects  the  public  intimately,  in  view  of  the  decreasing 
supply  of  pulp  timber  and  the  constantly  increasing 
scarcity  and  rapidly  mounting  cost  of  paper.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  sooner  or  later  a  way  will  be  found  for  utiliz- 


Courtesy  of  Forest  Products  Laboratory. 

Making  a  ^'Compression-on-an-Edge"  Test. 

This  test  consists  in  standing  a  bow  on  its  edge  and  applying  a  gradually 
increasing  pressure. 


181 


This 


Making  a 
test  consists   in 


Courtesy  of  Forest  Products  Laboratory. 
CoRNERwiSE  Compression  Test." 


steady  and  constantly  increasing  pressure  measured 
in  pounds,  applied  to  the  comer  of  any  package  with  the  opposite  corner  in  a 
direct  line  with  the  pressure. 

182 


THE  FOREST  PRODUCTS  LABORATORY   183 

ing  more  of  the  tree  in  the  manufacture  of  pulp,  for  in  the 
language  of  the  laboratory,  ^'a  ton  of  dry  wood  yields 
only  nine  hundred  pounds  of  dry  sulphite  pulp  for  paper. 
The  rest  is  lost  in  the  waste  sulphite  liquor.'^ 

Solving  Business  Problems.— And  so  thousands  of 
problems  have  been  submitted  to  the  laboratory  by  the 
Government  and  private  interests,  and  thousands  of  these 
problems  have  been  solved.  In  its  manifold  Govern- 
ment work  the  laboratory  not  alone  found  out  the  most 
suitable  woods  for  airplane  propellers  during  the  late 
war,  but  also  invented  a  method  for  perfectly  drying  the 
wood  in  from  ten  to  twenty  days,  something  that  before 
that  time  had  taken  from  one  to  two  years.  The  lab- 
oratory also  discovered  the  method  of  waterproofing  the 
propeller,  known  as  the  aluminum  leaf  method,  and  the 
experiments  on  plywood,  or  veneered  wood,  carried  on  at 
the  laboratory,  saved  the  Government  some  $6,000,000  in 
wood  costs  and  prevented  countless  airplane  accidents. 
The  inventions  of  the  laboratory  in  glues  alone  would 
fully  justify  its  existence  if  it  did  not  have  to  its  record 
a  great  number  of  achievements  in  many  other  depart- 
ments, and  let  us  repeat  that  just  as  the  laboratory 
solved  Governmental  problems,  it  stands  ready  to  solve 
the  problems  of  business,  whether  these  problems  have 
to  do  with  the  preparation  of  shipping  cases  or  crates  or 
with  some  other  work  entrusted  to  the  vigilance  of  this 
most  important  efficiency  organization.  Many'  business 
concerns  have  made  use  of  the  facilities  offered,  and  the 
General  Electric  Company  has  smashed  thousands  of 
electric  lamps  in  testing  machines  of  the  laboratory  for 
the  -purpose  of  designing  a  suitable  container. 

Method  of  Testing  Containers— We  show  herewith 
a  number  of  illustrations,  among  them  being  the  so- 
called  ''hazard''  machine,  which  is  designed  to  give  a 
box  or  case  as  many  bumps  and  jars  as  it  would  receive 
on  an  ordinary  thousand-mile  journey.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  these  machines  are  now  being  built  for 
private  plants,  the  Edison  Lamp  Works  of  Harrison, 
N.  J.,  having  just  installed  such  a  machine  at  a  cost 


184  EXPORT  PACKING 

of  $2,500.  This  machine  is  hexagonal  in  shape  and  re- 
volves vertically,  the  inside  of  the  drum  containing  ridges 
of  wood  and  metal.  Each  time  the  wheel  revolves  the 
box  being  tested  drops  six  times,  a  meter  keeping  accu- 
rate count  of  the  drops,  and  the  drum  revolves  so  slowly 
that  as  the  cracks  open  or  the  wood  splits  it  is  easy  to 
follow  the  process.  These  tests  show  the  defects  of  the 
particular  container  and  new  designs  are  then  placed  in 
the  drum  which  are  put  through  the  same  test,  and  so  the 
story  goes. 

Another  test  that  we  illustrate  is  the  *^Comerwise 
Compression  Test,"  which  consists  of  standing  a  box  on 
a  corner  and  applying  a  gradually  increasing  pressure  or 
squeeze.  Another  test  is  the  *  ^  Compression-on-an-edge 
Test,''  which  is  the  same  method  as  that  used  in  the  first 
test,  only  in  this  case  the  edge  of  the  box  is  submitted  to 
the  experiment.  Of  course  all  of  these  tests  are  carefully 
recorded  and  the  data  minutely  examined.  Still  another 
test  is  the  ^^Drop  Test,''  in  which  a  case  is  repeatedly 
dropped  and  the  results  carefully  watched. 

We  have  given  a  very  summary  view  of  what  the  lab- 
oratory has  done  and  is  doing,  but  it  is  not  possible  for 
all  of  us  to  go  to  Madison  nor  can  we  take  a  personal  part 
in  the  experiments.  However,  the  laboratory  has  antici- 
pated all  of  this  and  comes  to  us  in  the  form  of  exhaustive 
tabulations  of  the  results  of  experiments,  and  practical 
data  obtained  from  them.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
is  a  report  of  the  laboratory  on  **  Balanced  Packing 
Box  Construction. ' '    This  we  print  in  full  as  follows : 

**A  properly  designed  packing  box  is  one  which  has 
enough  strength  in  each  part  for  the  purpose  for  which  it 
is  intended,  and  no  more  strength  in  any  part  than  is 
necessary  to  balance  the  average  strength  in  every  other 
part.  The  data  necessary  for  designing  such  a  box  can- 
not be  obtained  from  observation  of  boxes  in  actual  com- 
mercial service,  because  the  observer  sees  the  box  only 
after  it  has  completely  failed.  He  does  not  see  the  be- 
ginning of  the  failures;  and  he  does  not  see  and  conse- 
quently cannot  measure  the  hazard  which  completes  them. 


THE  FOREST  PRODUCTS  LARORATORY   185 

A  failure  frequently  bears  evidence  in  itself  of  the  cause 
of  the  damage ;  but  there  is  no  way  of  determining  from 
a  study  of  the  failure  the  amount  of  force  exerted  by  the 
damaging  cause,  and  in  cases  where  several  causes  have 
been  active  it  is  impossible  to  identify  each  of  them.  On 
the  other  hand,  laboratory  studies  (made  at  the  Forest 
Products  Laboratory,  conducted  by  the  Forest  Service 
at  Madison,  Wis.,  in  cooperation  with  the  University  of 
Wisconsin)  combine  practical  experience,  which  is  a 
knowledge  of  the  designs  in  use,  of  what  lumber  is  avail- 
able, and  of  box  factory  practice,  with  accurate  scientific 
tests  made  on  the  package  itself,  packed  as  in  actual 
service  and  subjected  to  strains  that  appoximate  actual 
transportation  conditions. 

Tests  to  Determine  Box  Design. — * '  Compression- 
along-an-edge  test,  as  its  name  implies,  is  a  steady  and 
constantly  increasing  pressure  (measured  in  pounds)  ap- 
plied along  any  edge  and  with  the  opposite  edge  diagon- 
ally through  the  box  in  a  direct  line  with  the  pressure 
exerted.  The  corner-wise  test  is  applied  in  the  same  way 
to  any  corner  of  the  package  with  the  opposite  corner  in 
a  direct  line  with  the  pressure.  These  two  tests  measure 
the  strength  of  the  box  in  withstanding  any  external 
pressure,  and  to  a  limited  extent  approximate  the  hazard 
of  the  lower  tiers  of  boxes  in  a  pile.  By  themselves  these 
tests  are  insufficient  to  determine  comparative  weaknesses 
in  the  various  factors  that  enter  into  properly  balanced 
construction. 

**  Another  very  good  test  is  the  drop  test,  especially 
for  comparing  the  strength  of  one  box  with  that  of  an- 
other. In  this  test  the  box  is  packed  with  the  actual  con- 
tents as  in  service  and  dropped  from  a  predetermined 
height  directly  on  the  corner,  which  is  a  fall  that  occurs 
in  actual  service.  The  value  of  the  conclusions,  in  any 
constructive  way,  is  limited,  however,  because  one  failure 
runs  so  rapidly  into  another  that  the  observer  does  not 
always  get  the  true  measure  of  the  weakness. 

^^The  most  practical  method  yet  devised  for  testing 
packing. boxes  is  the  revolving  drum  test.    The  drum  is  a 


186  EXPORT  PACKING 

hexagon-sicled  machine  and  revolves  slowly.  The  box 
to  be  tested  is  packed  with  the  actual  contents,  as  in  com- 
mercial service,  and  placed  in  this  drum.  In  the  drum 
are  arranged  a  series  of  hazards,  which  cause  the  box  to 
follow  a  regular  cycle  of  drops,  falling  upon  sides,  top, 
bottom,  ends,  edges,  comers,  and  flatwise  upon  a  projec- 
tion similar  to  the  corner  of  another  box.  These  drops 
simulate  the  usual  hazards  of  transportation,  excepting 
the  heavy  static  pressure  received  by  a  box  in  the  lower 
tiers  of  .a  pile,  which  is  secured  by  means  of  the  compres- 
sion-on-edge  test  described  above. 

**As  the  box  moves  on  from  one  drop  to  the  next  the 
observer  notes  the  beginning  of  the  failure  of  the  weakest 
point  in  its  construction,  and  follows  the  development  of 
that  weakness  until  the  box  entirely  fails  and  lets  its 
contents  out. 

^*The  weak  feature  of  the  box  may  be  too  few  nails, 
nails  of  too  short  a  length,  nails  driven  in  a  crack  and 
thus  having  no  great  holding  power,  or  some  other  form 
of  nail  failure ;  and  the  tests  clearly  show  this  weakness. 
The  material  in  the  sides,  top  or  bottom  may  be  too  thin, 
so  that  the  shocks  of  the  falls  pull  the  wood  from  the 
nails.    The  wood  may  split  or  break  across  the  grain. 

**  Any  one  of  the  numerous  weaknesses  of  packing- 
box  construction  may  be  developed  in  this  test,  until 
finally  the  observer  is  able  to  build  up  a  box  that  is  prac- 
tically equally  strong  in  every  feature.  Boxes  are  then 
built,  packed,  and  tested  until  the  presence  of  this  balance 
in  design  is  clearly  demonstrated.  Such  a  demonstra- 
tion will  show  failures  ultimately  occurring  in  average 
proportion  in  nails  pulling  from  the  wood,  wood  pulling 
from  the  nails,  splitting  or  breaking  of  ends,  sides,  tops 
or  bottoms,  and  through  the  weaknesses  of  the  species 
themselves. 

Conditions  Which  Affect  Box  Design.— ''Commercial 
conditions  and  practices  in  box  factories  enter  into  con- 
sideration in  designing  containers  of  proper  construc- 
tion. Packing  boxes  are  made  of  low-grade  lumber. 
This  lumber  is  low  grade  because  of  splits,  shakes,  knots, 


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THE  FOREST  PRODUCTS  LABORATORY   189 

knot  holes,  dote,  or  other  defects.  Such  defects  as  affect 
the  proper  efficiency  of  the  box  must  be  cut  out ;  but  those 
defects  which  do  not  destroy  the  proper  balance  of  the 
construction  should  be  permitted,  so  as  to  keep  down  the 
cost  of  manufacture. 

^*As  lumber  is  sawn  into  such  thicknesses  as  bring  the 
best  market  prices  for  the  high  grades,  the  low  grades 
must  be  necessarily  of  the  same  thicknesses.  The  thick- 
nesses specified  in  the  packing  box  must  be  obtainable 
from  this  lumber  without  undue  waste. 

^'Certain  box  factory  equipment  is  standard.  This 
should  be  kept  in  mind  and  no  construction  adopted  that 
requires  special  equipment  unless  some  essential  features 
of  construction  cannot  be  obtained  otherwise. 


Courtesy  of  Forest  Products  Laboratory 
Figure    1.    Method    of   measuring  size   of  knot. 


Aids  in  Box  Designing.— **  As  a  result  of  many  box 
tests  of  all  kinds  certain  aids  of  somewhat  general  ap- 
plication in  designing  packing  boxes  may  be  suggested. 
No  general  rules  can  be  laid  down,  however,  for  the  rea- 
son that  each  box  must  be  built  with  reference  not  only 
to  the  external  shocks  it  will  have  to  endure  but  also  to 
the  nature  of  the  article  it  is  to  contain.  Some  commodi- 
ties require  partitions,  trays,  diaphragms,  and  the  like. 
Some  commodities  are  affected  by  heat  or  cold.  Some 
commodities  contribute  strength  to  the  package;  others 
are  fragile,  so  that  all  the  required  strength  must  be  in 
the  box  itself. 

**A  design  which  takes  into  consideration  these  points 


190  EXPORT  PACKING 

and  the  conditions  in  the  industry  as  well  will  result  in 
well-balanced  construction,  and  the  most  practical  and 
economical  package  for  the  purpose  intended;  but  lab- 
oratory tests  on  the  box,  packed  with  the  commodity 
which  it  is  to  hold,  are  necessary  to  make  certain  that  all 
the  qualities  desired  are  actually  present.  Each  com- 
modity should  be  studied  before  a  package  is  constructed 
for  it.  Nor  is  the  nature  of  transportation  always  the 
same.  Packages  for  foreign  service  are  subjected  to 
severer  hazards  than  those  shipped  to  domestic  markets 
and  should  be  protected  accordingly. 

Quality  and  Condition  of  Lumber. — *' Boxes  should  be 
manufactured  from  lumber  which  is  sound  (free  from 
decay  and  dote)  and  well  seasoned.  The  average  mois- 
ture content  of  the  wood  should  be  from  12  to  18  per 
cent,  based  on  the  weight  after  oven-drying. 

**The  following  chart  shows  the  effect  on  the  strength 
of  the  box  caused  by  the  moisture  condition  of  the  lum- 
ber and  the  change  of  moisture  condition  in  storage. 

MOISTURE  CONTENT 

Strength 
Relation 
Per  cent 

Nailed  and  tested  at  once  at  15  per  cent  moisture 100 

Nailed  and  tested  at  once  at  30  per  cent  moisture 90 

Nailed  at  15  per  cent,  tested  at  5  per  cent  moisture,  4  months'  storage .  .     75 

Nailed  and  tested  at  once  at  5  per  cent  moisture. 50 

Nailed  at  30  per  cent  moisture, 

tested  at  5  per  cent  moisture, 

one  year  in  storage 15 

Nailed  at  5  per  cent  moisture, 

tested  at  35  per  cent  moisture, 

stored  2  weeks  in  exhaust  steam 10 

Nailed  at  5  per  cent  moisture, 

dried  at  43^  per  cent  moisture, 

tested  at  35  per  cent  moisture, 

two  weeks  in  dry  storage, 

two  weeks  in  steam 10 

Nailed  at  5  per  cent  moisture, 

steamed  at  35  per  cent  moisture, 

tested  at  43^  per  cent  moisture, 

two  weeks  in  steam  storage, 

two  weeks  in  dry  storage 10 

*  ^Lumber  should  be  free  from  knot  holes  and  loose 
or  rotten  knots.     Knots  whose  diameter  exceeds  one- 


THE  FOREST  PRODUCTS  LABORATORY    191 

third  the  width  of  the  board,  measured  as  in  Figure  1, 
should  not  be  permitted,  and  no  knots  should  be  per- 
mitted which  interfere  with  the  proper  nailing  of  the  box. 

Weight  and  Interchangeability  of  Species.— ''The  re- 
sults of  the  drum  tests,  combined  with  the  data  devel- 
oped by  thousands  of  tests  on  many  species  of  woods 
under  varying  conditions  of  locality,  state  of  dryness  of 
the  wood,  weight,  hardness,  shock-resisting  ability,  resist- 
ance to  nails,  tendency  to  split,  et  cetera,  as  well  as  by 
tests  of  the  holding  power  of  the  various  sizes  and  kinds 
of  nails,  screws,  strapping,  and  the  like,  have  made  it 
possible  to  group  the  woods  generally  used  in  packing 
boxes  into  four  groups,  such  that,  in  a  general  way,  any 
wood  in  one  group  substituted  for  any  other  wood  in  the 
same  group  and  built  into  a  box  of  the  same  specifications, 
would  give  practically  the  same  results  in  commercial 
service.  These  groups  are  given  in  Table  1,  which  also 
gives  the  average  weight  of  the  various  species  in  pounds 
per  square  inch  surface  measure,  on  various  thicknesses 
of  box  lumber,  air  dried  (an  approximate  moisture  con- 
tent of  from  12  to  18  per  cent  based  on  the  weight  of  the 
wood  after  oven  drying).'* 

Barrels. — In  this  book  the  discussion  of  packing  con- 
tainers has  been  to  a  considerable  extent  limited  to  cases, 
crates  and  bales,  but  there  has  been  frequent  mention  of 
shipments  in  barrels,  and  certain  commodities,  for  ex- 
ample, cement,  oils,  greases  and  so  on,  are  very  generally 
shipped  in  barrels.  Moreover,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
barrel  invades  many  other  lines  as  a  container,  and  this 
fact  is  brought  out  in  the  description  of  packing  of  chains 
and  other  metal  goods.  The  importance  of  the  barrel 
should  therefore  not  be  minimized,  and  we  present  with 
this  chapter  five  photographs  which  show  that  the  Forest 
Products  Laboratory  at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  has  not 
been  unmindful  of  this  fact. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture's  figures  on  cooper- 
age production,  the  latest  statistics  available  being  those 
for  1918,  show  some  very  interesting  totals.  In  this  year 
the    reported    production    of    tight    cooperage    stock 


192 


EXPORT  PACKING 


TABLE  1— APPROXIMATE  AVERAGE  WEIGHT  OF  VARIOUS  SPECIES  OF  WOODS 
USED  IN  PACKING  BOXES.  IN  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  INCH  SURFACE  MEAS- 
UREMENT FOR  USUAL  PACKING  BOX  THICKNESS.  SPECIES  IN  AIR  DRIED 
CONDITION.  12%  TO  15%  MOISTURE  CONTENT. 


Species 

Thickness 

H" 

'%' 

H" 

H" 

^' 

H" 

.^ 

H" 

Group  I 

Pounds  per  sq.  in 

.  surface 

measurement 

. 

White  Pine 

Norway  Pine 

.014 
.017 
.014 
.014 
.013 
.015 
.014 
.013 
.015 
.014 
.013 
.017 
.014 
.014 
.018 
.013 
.013 
.016 
.013 
.014 
.017 
.012 
.015 

.013 
.016 
.013 
.013 
.012 
.014 
.013 
.012 
.014 
.013 
.012 
.016 
.013 
.013 
.016 
.012 
.012 
.015 
.012 
.013 
.016 
Oil 
.014 

.012 
.015 
.012 
.012 
.011 
.013 
.012 
.011 
.013 
.012 
.011 
.015 
.012 
.012 
.015 
.011 
.011 
.013 
.011 
.012 
.015 
.010 
.013 

.0098 

.012 

.0098 

.010 

.0094 

.010 

.010 

.0094 

.011 

.0098 

.0094 

.012 

.010 

.010 

.013 

.0091 

.0094 

.011 

.0091 

.0098 

.012 

.0083 

.010 

.0078 

.0098 

.0078 

.0081 

.0075 

.0084 

.0081 

.0075 

.0087 

.0078 

.0075 

.0098 

.0081 

.0081 

.010 

.0072 

.0075 

.0090 

.0072 

.0078 

.0098 

.0067 

.0084 

.0059 
.0074 
.0059 
.0060 
.0056 
.0063 
.0060 
.0056 
.0065 
.0059 
.00.56 
.0074 
.0060 
.0060 
.0076 
.0054 
.0056 
.0067 
.0054 
.0059 
.0074 
.0050 
.0063 

.0049 
.0061 
.0049 
.0050 
.0047 
.0052 
.0050 
.0047 
.0054 
.0049 
.0047 
,0061 
.0050 
.00.50 
.0063 
.0045 
.0047 
.0056 
.0045 
.0049 
.0061 
.0041 
.0052 

.0039 

.0049 

.0039   . 

.0040 

.0038 

.0042 

.0040 

.00.38 

.0043 

.0039 

.0038 

.0049 

.0040 

.0040 

.0051 

.0036 

.0038 

.0045 

.0036 

.0039 

.0049 

.0033 

.0042 

Spruce 

Western  Yellow  Pine . . 

Yellow  Poplar 

Balsam  Fir 

Chestnut 

Basswood 

Willow 

Noble  Fir 

Buckeye 

White  Fir 

Cedar 

Redwood 

Butternut 

Alpine  Fir 

Lodgepole  Pine 

Species 


Thickness 


Vs' 


'%' 


H' 


W 


H' 


%' 


H' 


Group  II 


Pounds  per  sq.  in.  surface  measurement 


Southern  Yellow  Pine 

Hemlock 

Virginia  and  Carolina 

Pine 

Douglas  Fir 

Larch 


020 
015 

.019 
.014 

.017 
.013 

.015 
.010 

.012 
.0084 

.0087 
.0063 

.0072 
.0052 

020 
017 
019 

.018 
.016 
.017 

.017 
.014 
.016 

.014 
.012 
.013 

.011 

.0096 

.011 

.0085 
.0072 
.008 

.0071 
.0060 
.0067 

.0058 
.0042 

.0057 
.0048 
.0054 


Group  III 


White  Elm 

Red  Gum 

Sycamore 

Pumpkin  Ash 

Black  Ash 

Black  Gum 

Tupelo 

Maple,  Soft  or  Silver 

Group  IV 


017 

.016 

.015 

.012 

.0098 

.0074 

.0061 

018 

.016 

.015 

.013 

.010 

.0076 

.0063 

018 

.016 

.015 

.013 

.010 

.0076 

.0063 

019 

.017 

.016 

.013 

.011 

.0080 

.0067 

018 

.017 

.016 

.013 

.010 

.0078 

.0065 

018 

.017 

.016 

.013 

.010 

.0078 

.0065 

019 

.017 

.016 

.013 

.011 

.0080 

.0067 

017 

.016 

.015 

.012 

.0098 

.0074 

.0061 

.0049 
.0051 
.0051 
.0053 
.0052 
.0052 
.0053 
.0049 


Hard  Maple 

Beech 

Oak 

Hackberry . . 

Birch 

Rock  Elm.. 
White  Ash.. 


022 

.020 

.019 

.016 

.013 

.0095 

.0080 

022 

.020 

.019 

.016 

.013 

.0095 

.0080 

023 

.022 

.020 

.017 

.013 

.010 

.0083 

019 

.017 

.016 

.013 

.011 

.008 

.0067 

022 

.020 

.019 

.016 

.012 

.0093 

.0078 

023 

.021 

.020 

.016 

.013 

.0098 

.0081 

019 

.018 

.016 

.014 

.011 

.0082 

.0069 

.0064 
.0064 
.0067 
.0053 
.0062 
.0065 
.0055 


THE  FOREST  PRODUCTS  LABORATORY   193 

amounted  to  286,401,000  staves  and  20,711,271  sets  of 
heading.  The  output  of  staves  was  24  per  cent  smaller, 
than  in  1909  and  20  per  cent  smaller  than  in  1911,  while 
the  manufacture  of  heading  was  less  than  1  per  cent 
under  that  of  1909  and  32  per  cent  under  1911.  For 
staves  the  slack  cooperage  production  for  1918  was  50 
per  cent  under  1909  and  24  per  cent  under  1911,  and  the 
heading  production  showed  a  decline  of  57  per  cent  and 
43  per  cent  as  compared  with  1909  and  1911  respectively. 

From  these  figures  it  is  evident  that  important 
changes  have  taken  place  in  the  cooperage  industry 
during  the  past  ten  years.  Demand  for  certain  types 
of  barrels  has  fluctuated  with  the  popularity  of  various 
styles  of  containers,  while  the  increasing  use  of  con- 
tainers made  of  other  materials  has  had  a  marked  effect 
on  the  production  of  cooperage  stock.  This  is  equally 
true  whether  we  consider  tight  or  slack  cooperage.  The 
use  of  the  latter  style  of  barrel  has  been  greatly  modi- 
fied by  the  increasing  use  of  sacks  as  well  as  that  of  the 
veneer  barrel  or  drum.  However,  the  increased  use  of 
barrels  for  packing  lime  and  cement,  as  well  as  farm 
produce,  has  done  much  to  maintain  the  cooperage  indus- 
try at  a  fairly  high  productive  level.  The  prohibition 
movement  has  also  greatly  affected  the  demand  for  tight 
cooperage,  and  while  millions  of  beer  and  ale  staves  were 
produced  in  former  years,  in  1918  the  production  was 
measured  by  a  few  hundred  thousands. 

Mr.  Hu  Maxwell  writes  interestingly  in  American 
Forestry  on  the  subject  of  cooperage,  in  part,  as  follows : 

Kinds  of  Cooperage.— "There  are  two  kinds  of  coop- 
erage, commonly  distinguished  as  ^tighV  and  *  slack.* 
Tight  vessels  are  intended  for  liquids ;  slack  for  dry  ar- 
ticles. Classes  and  grades  come  between  the  two  ex- 
tremes. The  barrel  that  carries  alcoholic  liquors  is  con- 
sidered the  highest  class  of  tight  cooperage,  while  the 
vegetable  barrel  is  typical  of  slack  containers.  The 
slack  barrel  end  of  the  business  is  the  larger,  judged 
by  the  quantity  of  wood  required  in  manufacturing  the 
product;  but  tight  barrels  demand  a  much  higher  grade 


194  EXPORT  PACKING 

of  wood.    The  value  of  the  slack  stock  used  in  the  country 

is  nearly  50  per  cent  more  than  the  value  of  the  tight 

^material.    Nearly  any  wood  is  suitable  for  some  kind  of 

slack  cooperage,  but  only  a  few  are  serviceable  for  tight. 

Woods  Used. — '^Room  exists  for  considerable  choice 
of  wood  for  staves  in  slack  cooperage,  but  not  so  much 
for  containers  of  liquids.  Flour  barrels  were  once  made 
principally  of  cottonwood  staves,  but  elm  has  proved  to 
be  a  good  substitute.  A  white  wood  that  represents  a 
clean  appearance  is  wanted,  and  it  must  be  tough  enough 
and  strong  enough  to  carry  the  load.  It  must  be  free 
from  odor  or  taste  that  might  injure  the  contents.  The 
sugar  barrel  demands  material  of  the  same  kind. 

^^Red  gum  leads  all  other  woods  because  it  is  abun- 
dant and  satisfactory.  The  shippers  of  butter,  lard, 
meat  and  other  food  products  select  the  most  suitable 
woods  for  their  barrels.  Custom  has  much  to  do  with  it, 
but  not  all ;  for  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  a  pine  barrel 
might  taint  food  with  the  taste  of  turpentine.  The  hard- 
woods are  demanded  in  three  times  the  number  for  slack 
barrels  as  are  the  soft-woods ;  yet  many  commodities  go 
to  market  in  soft-wood  barrels  and  kegs.  Scrub  pine  is 
used  for  nail  kegs  and  for  containers  of  other  small  hard- 
ware. 

•  

Wide  Use  of  Cooperage  Stock. — '^Extensive  use  is 
made  of  barrels  and  kegs  as  shipping  containers,  and  in 
some  places  they  compete  with  boxes,  while  in  others 
they  hold  the  field  to  themselves.  The  life  of  a  barrel  is 
put  down  at  one  year  by  the  trade,  but  that  is  not  enough. 
A  majority  of  barrels  are  used  many  times.  They  begin 
as  sugar  or  flour  barrels,  and  are  then  sold  to  the  farmer 
for  shipping  his  produce  to  market.  It  may  be  said  that 
they  are  returned  to  him  several  times,  carrying  potatoes 
to  the  market  on  the  first  trip,  and  tobacco  or  lettuce  on 
the  next,  each  cargo. being  lighter  in  weight  than  the 
previous  one,  owing  to  the  weakened  condition  of  the 
barrel.  Finally  the  barrel  may  serve  out  its  life  work  as 
a  trash  receptacle,  and  in  the  end  can  be  used  for  fuel. 
Thus  it  may  be  said  that  a  barrel  fills  as  useful  a  career 


•-3     § 


^    si 


©to 

«5^ 


195 


^  Courtesy  of  Forest  Products  Laboratory. 

Small  Hazard  Machine. 

Employed  in  testing  boxes  up  to  2V'  in  their  greatest  dimensions.  Machine 
revolves  verticallif.  Inside  of  drum  contains  ridges  of  tcood  and  metal.  With 
each  rp'-o7'ifion  *h"  h^ir  frfifrd  drops  six  times. 


r*!m  *'r*-Ai  

Courtesy  of  Forest  Products  Laloratorjf, 
Internal  Pressure  Test  for  Barrels. 
Barrel  and  connecting  pipes  filled  with  water  to  exclude  all  air.     Pressure  is 
then  progressively  raised  until  1  lb.  of  water  escapes  from  barrel  in  one  minute. 

196 


THE  FOREST  PRODUCTS  LABORATORY   197 

as  almost  any  other  manufactured  article,  and  its  life  is 
much  longer  than  a  season. 

*'The  demand  for  barrels  is  constantly  growing,  be- 
cause modem  machinery  has  made  it  possible  to  make 
them  for  the  trade  cheaper  than  almost  any  other  form 
of  durable  package.  That  it  is  the  most  convenient  form 
of  package  has  long  been  acknowledged. 

*'The  heaviest  demand  comes  from  the  cement  busi- 
ness, and  flour  ranks  next,  closely  followed  by  sugar  and 
salt.  As  containers  for  fence  staples,  bolts,  nuts,  nails, 
and  packages  for  roasted  coffee,  spices,  crockery,  fruits, 
and  vegetables,  they  follow  in  the  order  named.  Glass 
manufacturers,  baking  powder  companies,  liquor  distil- 
lers, and  candy,  tobacco,  and  cheese  packers  are  big  users 
of  barrels.  The  demand  for  barrels  for  molasses,  oil, 
lard  and  pork  is  also  enormous,  while  dry  paint,  glue, 
snuff,  oatmeal,  screws,  castings  and  general  hardware 
articles  annually  increase  the  demand  on  the  cooperage 
supply. 

Characteristics  of  Woods. — ''Some  woods  are  water- 
proof, others  are  not.  Alcoholic  liquors  and  some  oils 
will  pass  through  the  pores  of  some  woods  where  water 
will  not  go.  The  wood  of  which  a  whiskey  barrel  is  made 
may  absorb  a  gallon  of  whiskey  without  any  passing 
through  the  staves  and  escaping.  Some  woods  are  so 
porous  that  barrels  made  of  them  will  not  hold  water 
very  long.  Coopers  learned  by  experience  that  certain 
kinds  of  wood  made  better  staves  than  others,  when  the 
barrels  were  intended  for  liquid.  It  was  wholly  a  matter 
of  experience  at  first,  but  later  the  microscope  helped  to 
explain  why  some  are  proof  against  seepage  and  others 
are  not.  All  wood  is  more  or  less  porous.  It  is  made 
up  of  hollow  cells,  connected  one  with  another  by  small 
openings,  all  microscopic  in  size ;  but  some  of  the  hard- 
woods have  openings  much  larger  than  cells.  They  are 
tubes  running  through  the  wood,  up  and  down  the  trunk 
of  the  tree,  and  are  called  pores  or  vessels.  Some  of 
them,  as  in  oak  and  ash,  are  large  enough  to  be  seen  by 
the  unaided  eye,  by  inspecting  the  end  of  a  freshly  cut 


198  EXPORT  PACKING 

stick.  These  pores  are  responsible  for  the  fact  that  some 
barrels  will  not  hold  liquid.  It  seeps  into  the  pores  and 
flows  along  them  until  it  passes  entirely  through  the 
staves  and  escapes.  That  is  why  wood  with  large  open 
pores  is  not  suitable  for  tight  barrels. 


ilSH^^^^^nri^';% . 

^^^^r 

r^ 

BE3^^BB|CLJiJk.  ■  S 

.•t'     ''  ^Hl^^^ 

\^M 

'"^Sm^^ 

mw 

Courtesy  of  American  Forestry. 

Photograph  shows  tyloses  in  process  of  plugging  white  oak  pores. 

*' White  oak  has  always  been  considered  the  best  tight 
cooperage  wood.  Many  years  ago  it  was  thought  that  no 
other  could  or  should  be  used  for  certain  liquid  com- 
modities, but  others  have  lately  come  into  use.  Yet, 
white  oak  has  large  pores,  and  a  casual  observer  noting 
that  characteristic  would  conclude  that  it  is  not  good  for 
tight  barrels,  but  experience  shows  it  to  be  good.  Though 
it  has  large  pores,  which  may  be  easily  seen,  they  are 
not  open.  They  are  closed  as  a  bottle  is  closed  with,  a 
cork,  and  liquid  cannot  enter.  The  plugging  substance, 
which  is  known  as  tyloses,  is  of  a  whitish  color  and  is 
deposited  in  the  pores  by  the  wood  itself,  in  the  progress 
of  the  tree 's  growth  and  maturity.  It  occurs  principally 
after  the  sapwood  has  changed  into  heartwood.     Red 


THE  FOREST  PRODUCTS  LABORATORY    199 

oak's  pores  are  not  plugged.  Therefore  red  oak  is  not 
suitable  for  the  best  kind  of  tight  cooperage.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  pores,  whether  they  are  plugged  or  not,  ex- 
plains why  fewer  woods  are  available  for  tight  than  for 
slack  cooperage.  Only  the  best  wood  is  used  as  barrels 
for  alcoholic  liquors;  but  some  other  woods  will  do  for 
other  kinds  of  liquors,  such  as  brine  for  pork,  vinegar  for 
pickles,  and  for  certain  oils.'' 

Descriptive  of  the  tests  on  barrels  made  by  the  Forest 
Products  Laboratory  we  show  herewith  five  cuts,  the  first 
illustrating  the  side-compression  test.  In  this  test  the 
barrel  was  placed  between  two  flat  surfaces  and  com- 
pressed in  the  direction  of  its'  diameter.  The  rate  of 
compression  was  0.25  inch  per  minute  and  simultaneous 
readings  of  load,  compression  and  loss  of  water  from  the 
barrel  were  taken.  The  test  was  discontinued  when  one- 
half  the  water  had  escaped. 

The  second  test  is  known  as  the  diagonal-compression 
test,  the  barrel  being  compressed  between  two  flat  sur- 
faces and  supported  on  one  edge  or  chime  and  loaded 
on  the  other.  The  rate  of  compression  in  this  case  was 
the  same  as  in  test  number  one.  The  side-drop  test  is 
shown  in  plate  three,  in  this  case  the  barrel  being 
dropped  on  a  wooden  platform  about  31/2  inches  thick 
which  was  covered  with  a  steel  plate  %  inch  thick,  the 
platform  resting  on  the  concrete  floor  of  the  laboratory. 
The  first  drop  was  three  inches,  the  next  six,  and  so  on, 
the  length  of  drop  being  increased  three  inches  each  time. 
The  test  was  continued  until  one-half  the  contents  of 
the  barrel  had  escaped. 

The  diagonal-drop  test,  shown  in  plate  four,  is  the 
same  as  the  side-drop  except  that  the  barrel  is  dropped 
on  the  edge.  In  the  internal  pressure  test,  plate  five, 
the  barrel  and  connecting  pipes  were  filled  with  water 
in  such  a  way  as  to  exclude  all  air  as  far  as  possible. 
The  pressure  was  then  raised  to  two  pounds  per  square 
inch  and  held  for  two  minutes.  The  pressure  was  then 
raised  to  four  pounds  and  held  for  two  minutes.  The 
process   was   continued,   increasing  the   pressure   two 


200  EXPORT  PACKING 

pounds  each  time  and  holding  it  constant  for  two  minutes, 
until  one  pound  of  water  ran  from  the  barrel  in  one  min- 
ute or  less.  With  the  data  of  these  tests  as  a  guide  the 
laboratory  was  able  to  suggest  some  very  valuable  im- 
provements in  the  barrels  experimented  with. 

This  chapter  should  be  read  in  connection  with  other 
chapters  of  this  book,  which  mention  and  discuss  barrel 
containers.  In  the  chapter  on  cement  will  be  found  inter- 
esting data  and  photographs. 


CHAPTER  YIII 

CLIMATE  AND  PORT  FACILITIES  AFFECTING 
MANNER  OF  PACKING 

PROVIDING  for  transhipment  is  not  alone  a  ques- 
tion of  export  packing  sufficiently  good  to  stand 
being  taken  from  the  ship^s  hold  and  dropped  into 
a  lighter,  frequently  under  very  severe  conditions;  it 
may  involve  much  more  than  that.  For  example,  after 
the  package  is  taken  from  the  ship  it  may  be  necessary 
to  tranship  it  by  cart,  burro,  llama,  bullock,  camel,  man, 
or  in  some  other  way.  Therefore  it  is  not  alone  a  ques- 
tion of  packing  goods  well,  it  is  also  a  question  of  packing 
them  to  meet  these  special  conditions.  Generally  it  may 
be  said  that  a  mule  can  carry  from  200  to  250  pounds, 
a  burro  from  150  to  200,  a  llama  about  100,  and  a  camel 
from  350  to  450.  In  making  up  packages  for  transporta- 
tion by  any  of  these  beasts,  however,  the  package  should 
be  only  one-half  of  the  indicated  weight.  Transportation 
by  animals  generally  takes  place  by  strapping  a  pack- 
age on  each  side  of  the  beast,  so  as  to  balance  the  load. 
Thus  the  mule  would  carry  two  packages  of  100  pounds 
each,  the  burro  two  of  75  to  100,  and  so  on.  With  refer- 
ence to  human  transportation  the  weight  that  can  be 
carried  varies  greatly.  Any  one  who  has  seen  the  Mex- 
ican peon,  a  Peruvian  Indian,  or  a  Turkish  hammal 
(porter)  trotting  along  under  huge  burdens  would  be 
inclined  to  conclude  that  there  was  almost  an  unlimited 
capacity.  But  it  may  be  stated  that  the  general  average 
load  for  a  man  is  from  100  to  150  pounds. 

Climatic  Conditions  as  Affecting  Packing. — Climatic 
conditions  have  a  very  important  influence  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  package,  and  this  offers  another  opportunity 
to  insist  on  a  little  .preliminary  study  of  geography. 
This  statement  applies  no  matter  what  the  direction  of 

201 


202  EXPORT  PACKING 

the  compass.  For  example,  a  shipment  may  be  going  to 
Nova  Scotia  and  the  manufacturer  may  think  that  his 
usual  Canadian  packing  will  suffice,  but  he  overlooks  the 
fact  that  the  climate  of  Nova  Scotia  is  very  damp  and 
that  his  metal  goods  should  be  much  more  carefully  pro- 
tected than  is  the  case  for  shipments  to  more  usual 
Canadian  points.  Moving  to  another  part  of  the  world, 
to  Honduras  for  example,  we  find  that  the  rainy  season 
lasts  for  from  five  to  six  months,  and  the  rainy  season 
there  is  no  mere  figure  of  speech  as  it  is  in  many  cases. 

In  Honduras  goods  must  be  carefully  packed  for  pro- 
tection against  moisture  if  the  shipment  is  to  arrive  in 
good  shape.  Shipments  for  Salvador  or  Peru  which  are 
transhipped  into  lighters  are  exposed  to  sea  water, 
while  exposure  to  torrential  rains  is  characteristic  not 
alone  of  shipments  to  Colombia  and  many  parts  of  South 
America,  but  also  to  many  other  sections  of  the  world. 
Another  peril  goods  have  to  face  is  intense  heat.  It 
frequently  happens  that  goods  are  stowed  near  the 
boilers  of  ships  or  that  they  are  subject  to  intense  trop- 
ical heat,  as  in  Colombia  or  India.  Moreover,  in  many 
countries  the  air  is  heavily  charged  with  humidity,  to 
such  an  extent  that  fungoid  growths  are  produced  fre- 
quently destroying  or  rendering  useless  many  valuable 
shipments.  It  may  be  that  the  foreign  buyer  is  unreason- 
able in  expecting  the  exporter  to  know  all  about  these 
many  different  conditions,  and  not  alone  to  know  about 
them  but  to  guard  against  them  by  packing  that  protects 
the  goods.  But,  be  this  as  it  may,  there  are  some  export- 
ing houses  that  are  acquainted  with  the  conditions  and 
that  take  proper  precautions  to  protect  their  shipments, 
and  these  are  the  houses  that  eventually  get  the  business. 

What  They  Do  in  the  Ports. — Another  important  point 
to  be  considered  is  the  port  conditions.  Because  we  have 
ideal  port  conditions  in  New  York  and  in  many  of  the 
other  shipping  centers  of  the  United  States,  it  does  not 
follow  that  there  is  anything  similar  in  other  countries. 
To  be  sure,  there  are  countries  where  port  conditions 
are  superior  even  to  those  of  the  United  States,  but  none 


CLIMATE  AND  PORT  FACILITIES         203 

the  less  there  are  vast  sections  of  the  world  'where  port 
facilities  are  practically  unknown,  and  this  is  true  par- 
ticularly of  many  parts  of  South  America.  Later  in  this 
chapter  there  will  be  quoted  a  description  of  tranship- 
ment at  a  South  American  West  Coast  port. 

Foreign  Transportation  and  Its  Difficulties.— Goods 
may  be  carried  for  many  days  in  ox  carts,  as  is  the  case 
in  Honduras.  Goods  sent  by  parcel  post,  packed  by  the 
Post  Office  in  bags  or  cases,  are  tossed  from  a  wagon  to 
a  wharf,  from  wharf  to  the  hold  of  the  ship  with  other 
packages  of  various  descriptions  on  top  as  a  rule,  and 
when  taken  from  the  ship  they  are  dropped  into  a  ligUter 
and  again  and  again  go  through  the  same  process,  each 
time  receiving  shocks  of  various  kinds.  Or  it  may  be,  as 
in  Colombia,  that  the  lighter  packages  are  usually  se- 
lected by  the  porters  and  muleteers,  and  the  heavy  boxes 
left  until  such  time  as  conditions  admit  of  their  transpor- 
tation. But  this  time  may  be  many  weeks,  even  months, 
after  the  arrival  of  the  goods,  and  many  things  may 
happen  during  these  weeks  and  months. 

Where  Conditions  Are  Trying. — The  two  principal 
conditions  existing  in  foreign  markets  which  require  the 
attention  and  consideration  of  American  shippers  in  pre- 
paring their  packages  for  export,  are  climatic  conditions 
as  existing  in  the  tropical  countries,  of  which  India  may 
be  taken  as  one  of  the  most  striking  illustrations,  and 
the  primitive  development,  even  the  total  lack,  of  harbor 
and  port  facilities  which  many  ports  in  Central  and 
South  America  may  best  illustrate.  Many  Americans 
who  have  not  traveled  widely  over  the  world  have  not 
the  faintest  conception  of  what  a  really  tropical  climate 
means  with  its  excessive  humidity,  its  rainy  and  its  dry 
seasons,  the  danger  of  ravages  by  insects,  etc.  Similarly, 
few  people  who  have  not  seen  for  themselves  or  studied 
in  books  or  photographs  the  conditions  under  which* 
goods  are  landed  in  some  of  the  Latin- American  ports, 
can  begin  to  understand  what  it  is  like  for  a  steamer  to 
anchor  from  two  to  four  miles  off  shore  and  tranship 
its  cargo  into  lighters  bobbing  up  and  down  in  a  heavy 


204  EXPORT  PACKING 

swell ;  even  landing  their  passengers  in  lighters  or  tend- 
ers, to  which  they  have  to  be  transferred  from  the  steamer 
in  baskets  lowered  by  derricks,  because  of  the  impossi- 
bility of  climbing  up  and  down  a  ship 's  ladder  in  a  heavy 
sea.  There  is  not  space  in  these  pages  for  detailed 
descriptions  of  the  climate  of  all  countries  of  the  world, 
nor  of  the  facilities  existing  in  the  hundreds  of  seaports 
of  the  world.  Certain  vivid  illustrations  may  be  here 
printed  which  will  suffice  to  convey  a  more  or  less  ade- 
quate impression  of  actual  conditions  such  as  those  just 
referred  to. 

What  a  Tropical  Climate  Means 

India  offers  us  a  classic  example  of  conditions  in  a 
tropical  country,  and  while  a  number  of  the  cities  of 
British  India  have  magnificent  docks,  none  the  less  the 
packing  problem  for  goods  shipped  to  India  is  a  very 
serious  one.  First,  we  have  conditions  of  interior  trans- 
portation which,  in  a  large  part  of  the  country,  are  primi- 
tive to  a  degree,  and  added  to  this  are  transhipments 
which  goods  sent  out  from  the  United  States  must  some- 
times suffer.  However,  the  chief  hazard  is  climatic,  and 
this  hazard  begins  to  operate  long  before  the  goods  reach 
India,  when,  for  example,  they  pass  through  the  Suez 
Canal  and  begin  their  journey  through  the  Red  Sea. 
The  terrific  heat  here  makes  itself  felt,  the  iron  sides  of 
the  ship  becoming  so  hot  that  one  cannot  touch  the  plates 
with  one's  hands  in  comfort,  and  hazards  increase  the 
nearer  the  goods  are  brought  to  India.  A  writer  in  the 
Indian  Textile  Journal,  of  Bombay,  has  this  to  say  of 
the  climatic  situation,  his  remarks  applying  in  general 
terms  to  any  other  tropical,  damp  climate : 

Rainfall. — '*The  rainfall  in  India,  which  all  takes  place 
within  four  to  five  months,  contributes  largely  in  giving 
to  the  climate  its  peculiar  character.  Averages  at  various 
cities  follow :  Bombay  72.25  inches,  Karachi  7.34  inches, 
Hyderabad  (Sind)  8  inches,  Nagpore  45.09  inches,  Alla- 
habad 38.51  inches. 


THA.Nr,i'uiviATiON  IN  Turkey. 
Eight  men  are  shown  carrying  a  hogshead  in  Constantinople. 


of  The  Americas. 

MOLLENDO,    A    TYPICAL  PORT  OF  THE  SoUTH  AMERICAN  WeST  COAST. 
Goods  are  landed  into  lighters  in  the  open  water  of  the  Pacific. 
205 


■^ISVISA^-X  « 


Courtesy  of  The  Americas. 
Unloading  Freight  at  Arica. 
y^r'thrsm  ofT^Mr^^^^  ^^^  ^^*^^  *^^^^^  ^^^^  lowered  into  a  lighter 

206 


% 


CLIMATE  AND  PORT  FACILITIES         207 

**The  effect  of  heavy  and  continuous  rain  in  the  trop- 
ics is  to  produce  a  dampness  in  the  air  quite  unknown  in 
Europe,  and  which  is  very  destructive  to  many  articles 
of  European  manufacture.  The  moisture  and  heat  com- 
bined set  up  all  kinds  of  fungoid  growth  and  decay  in 
goods  which  are  quite  unaffected  by  the  climatic  condi- 
tions of  Europe.  Mildew  attacks  textile  goods,  leather, 
books  and  stationery;  arms,  cutlery  and  metal  work 
require  constant  supervision  to  preserve  them.  Euro- 
pean furniture  of  wood  is  soon  spoiled  by  swelling  and 
shrinkage,  or  by  borer  worms ;  and  liquors,  excepting  the 
strong  alcoholic  ones,  rapidly  deteriorate  in  the  heat  of 
India.  Perishable  goods  soldered  up  in  tin  lined  cases 
are  not  safe  if  they  have  been  packed  in  Europe  in  wet 
weather.  The  heat  of  the  ship's  hold  in  the  Red  Sea,  or 
that  of  a  closed  iron  wagon  on  the  liidian  railways,  when 
the  iron  may  acquire  a  temperature  of  160  degrees  in  the 
sun,  will  start  mildew  in  the  case  by  the  aid  of  the 
moisture  within  it.  Straw  and  shaving  packings  hold  a 
good  deal  of  moisture  in  damp  weather,  and  do  much 
mischief  when  sent  to  the  tropics.  No  merchandise, 
therefore,  that  is  liable  to  injury  from  heat  or  moisture 
can  be  stored  long  in  India  without  serious  deterioration. 

Books  in  India. — '  *  Books  if  bound  with  ordinary  paste 
are  quickly  attacked  by  mildew  and  by  vermin.  Beetles 
will  eat  off  the  surface  finish  from  stamped  cloth  covers. 
The  paste  should  be  mixed  with  corrosive  sublimate  or 
other  antiseptic.  Books  on  shelves,  unless  packed  tight, 
are  all  hanging  by  the  binding,  and  a  warm,  damp  atmos- 
phere loosens  them  from  the  covers  if  they  are  large. 
All  large  books  for  use  in  the  tropics  should  be  bound  so 
that  when  placed  upright  on  a  shelf  the  leaves  would 
rest  on  the  shelf,  that  is  to  say,  the  covers  should  be  cut 
flush  with  the  leaves  on  the  under  side.  The  appearance 
of  such  a  volume  might  provoke  criticism,  but  it  would 
never  lose  its  cover  in  the  manner  described.  Books 
sewed  with  wire  go  speedily  to  pieces  in  the  tropics. 
Since  wire  sewing  has  been  introduced,  a  very  foolish 
economy  has  substituted  tinned  iron  wire  for  tinned 


208  EXPORT  PACKING 

copper.  The  tinning  soon  disappears  from  the  iron  and 
the  book  soon  falls  to  pieces. 

Oils  and  Drugs  in  India. — **  Barrels  containing  oil  are 
very  quickly  affected  by  a  hot  and  dry  atmosphere.  The 
moisture  from  the  wood  is  evaporated  more  quickly  than 
the  oil  can  replace  it  and  leakage  begins  unless  the  hoops 
are  set  up.  Oil,  therefore,  can  be  safely  stored  only  in 
iron  tanks.  Drug  compounds  and  proprietary  medicines 
are  also  specially  affected  in  the  tropics.  Pills  lose  in 
time  their  capacity  to  dissolve,  and  gum  capsules,  by 
oxidation,  become  practically  waterproof  in  spite  of 
every  possible  care  having  been  taken  of  them. 

Manufactures  of  Steel  in  the  Tropics.— '' Steel  or  iron 
instruments  or  weapons  meant  for  use  in  the  tropics 
should  be  kept  in  cases  without  any  linings.  Velvet,  silk, 
plush,  cloth  or  leather  linings  all  absorb  moisture  and 
cause  the  instrument  to  rust.  Nothing  will  keep  them 
so  well  as  linings  of  baywood  or  other  absorbent  timber 
which  has  been  well  painted,  while  hot,  with  a  melted" 
paraffin  wax.  No  wax  need  remain  on  the  surface,  but 
if  the  pores  are  properly  filled  the  trouble  and  loss  due 
to  rusting  of  valuable  instruments  or  weapons  may  be 
avoided.  During  the  monsoon  rains  all  wooden  cases 
containing  merchandise  for  transport  must  be  covered 
with  pack  sheeting  and  tarred  unless  they  are  tin  lined. 

Drying  Merchandise  in  India. — ''The  process  of  dry- 
ing merchandise,  whether  it  be  textile  goods  or  other 
materials,  demands  special  arrangements  during  the 
rains  that  may  fall  for  weeks  together  with  very  little 
intermission,  and  the  storage  of  dried  and  other  goods, 
such  as  tobacco  or  provisions,  has  still  to  be  provided  for. 
It  may  not  improbably  be  found  in  connection  with  the 
ice  factories  that  are  becoming  common  in  India,  and 
which,  by  means  of  suitable  extension,  might  provide 
cool  storage,  as  is  already  done  in  New  York.  A  sufficient 
reduction  of  temperature  stops  the  action  of  moisture 
even  on  the  most  perishable  goods.  This  may  be  ob- 
served in  the  case  of  fish  and  meat,  which  in  Bombay  are 
tainted  in  a  few  hours  after  death.    In  cold  weather  in 


CLIMATE  AND  PORT  FACILITIES         209 

Europe  they  will  keep  for  several  days,  and  if  well  frozen 
they  may  be  preserved  indefinitely. 

Absorbents  and  Repellents  Required  in  India. — ''Much 
has  already  been  done  for  the  preservation  of  perishable 
goods  on  a  small  scale,  and  the  use  of  absorbents  in  air 
tight  cases  is  a  great  aid  in  the  preservation  of  samples 
used  in  commerce.  Lime,  chloride  of  calcium,  salt,  dried 
sawdust,  and  sulphuric  acid  have  their  uses  as  absorbents 
of  moisture,  and  should  all  be  known  and  understood  in 
a  well  arranged  sample  room. 

''Glass  showcases  should  have  a  floor  as  well  as  top 
and  sides  of  glass,  for  a  wooden  floor,  being  permeable 
to  moisture,  will  absorb  water  vapor  from  the  air  and 
transmit  it  to  the  atmosphere  of  the  case.  There  is  thus 
a  flow  of  moisture  through  the  wood  which  must  either 
be  taken  up  by  absorbents  or  left  to  deteriorate  the  con- 
tents of  the  case.  No  showcase  is  absolutely  tight,  unless 
it  be  a  bottle  with  the  stopper  cemented  in  place.  There 
is  therefore  a  circulation  of  air  in  and  out,  which  is  con- 
trolled by  and  due  to  the  fluctuation  of  barometric 
pressure  twice  in  every  24  hours.  Every  closed  vessel 
breathes  twice  a  day,  the  inflow  carrying  with  it  dust  and 
moisture.  The  dust  settles  in  the  still  air  of  the  case  and 
the  moisture  is  taken  up,  partly  by  the  absorbent  and 
partly  by  the  articles  within.  It  is  this  fluctuation  of 
air  pressure  that  gives  movement  to  the  aneroid 
barometer.  Camphor  has  for  a  long  time  been  used  to 
repel  the  attacks  of  vermin  upon  furs  and  textile  fabrics, 
but  it  is  now  being  abandoned  in  favor  of  naphthalene  and 
benzine,  whose  odor  is  particularly  repugnant  to  insects 
of  all  kinds.  Kerosene  is  also  much  disliked  by  them,  but 
being  much  less  volatile  its  use  is  limited.  Ants  will  not 
crawl  up  the  leg  of  a  table  or  bed  around  which  a  rag 
dipped  in  kerosene  has  been  tied,  and  suspended  meat 
safes  may  be  protected  in  the  same  way,  with  a  rag  tied 
around  the  suspending  cord. 

Advantage  Taken  of  Dry  Season  in  India. — "Machin- 
ery, especially  that  for  textile  factories,  is  imported 
during  the  dry  season.    If  it  has  to  be  conveyed  far  from 


210  EXPORT  PACKING 

the  port  of  discharge,  the  makers  should  be  carefully 
informed  regarding  the  kind  of  land  carriage  that  will 
be  employed  to  deliver  it.  If  there  is  much  transport  by 
road,  as  may  easily  happen,  the  quality  of  the  road,  the 
inclines,  bridges,  and  fords  should  all  be  carefully  exam- 
ined and  reported  on,  as  it  might  be  necessary  to  restrict 
the  maximum  weight  of  the  heaviest  article  to  meet  the 
peculiarities  of  transport.'' 

Displaying  Hardware  in  India. — Shopkeepers  in  India 
have  difficulty  in  making  their  show  windows  and  even 
their  counter  showcases  attractive,  when  they  wish  to 
display  bright  steel  goods,  especially  cutlery,  If  a  pocket 
knife,  for  example,  is  displayed  in  a  show  window  for  a 
single  day  or  two  it  promptly  rusts  and  becomes  unsale- 
able and  unuseable.  Accordingly,  the  spectacle  is  com- 
mon, but  by  no  means  attractive,  of  a  handsome  display 
of  cutlery  and  other  bright  steel  goods  in  hardware  show 
windows  all  thickly  coated  with  vaseline. 

How  Indian  Druggists  Keep  Rubber  Goods. — The  only 
way  that  retail  drug  shops  in  India  can  satisfactorily 
carry  in  stock  the  necessary  supplies  of  rubber  sundries, 
syringes,  ice  bags,  hot  water  bags,  etc.,  is  by  keeping  their 
reserve  supplies  in  their  cellars,  under  water.  If  kept 
on  the  shelves  in  the  way  in  which  American  druggists 
carry  such  stocks  these  rubber  goods  would  spoil  in  a 
week  or  two  at  the  outside. 

Packing  Dry  Products  and  Chemicals  for  the  Tropics. 
— The  Indian  agents  of  a  large  British  firm  wrote 
recently  in  the  following  terms  regarding  packing  for 
India:  *^The  packing  that  will  do  for  temperate  climates, 
or  even  some  other  tropical  countries,  is  in  many  cases 
absolutely  unsuitable  for  India.  Take,  for  instance,  such 
things  as  dry  products  in  the  shape  of  milk  foods,  etc., 
and  powdered  forms  of  chemicals.  It  is  absolutely  essen- 
tial in  most  cases  that  these  shall  be  packed  in  glass  con- 
tainers, otherwise  the  humidity  of  the  climate  causes 
metal  packings  to  sweat  and  the  contents  to  become 
spoiled.  In  such  matters,  also,  as  the  packing  of  heavy 
chemicals  for  the  milling  industries — nitric,  sulphuri^j, 


CLIMATE  AND  PORT  FACILITIES         211 

and  other  acids — the  packing  preferred  for  these,  instead 
of  being  carboys,  is  28-pound  earthenware  jars,  packed 
two  in  a  case,  the  cases  being  very  strong  to  prevent 
breakage.  In  all  instances  hooped  packing  cases  should 
be  used,  as  the  goods  are  subject  to  very  rough  handling 
by  the  native  labor  at  the  docks  and  railways. ' ' 

Packing  for  Burma. — Burma  and  in  fact  all  terri- 
tories in  this  part  of  the  world  are  very  like  India  so  far 
as  climate  is  concerned,  but  it  should  be  especially  noted, 
in  addition  to  packing  for  climatic  conditions,  that  away 
from  the  main  river  and  railway  transportation  system 
these  countries  are  dependent  on  bullock  carts  traveling 
on  soft  bottom  roads  which  are  only  tracks.  It  is  always 
to  be  remembered  that  native  Indian  labor  is  far  from 
intelligent  and  is  taught  and  educated  with  some  difficulty. 

The  West  Coast  of  South  America. — A  large  exporter 
of  rubber  goods  has,  in  the  following  letter  to  the  author, 
given  a  very  good  idea  of  conditions  existing  along  the 
West  Coast  of  South  America  which,  in  a  general  way, 
may  be  taken  as  further  typical  of  conditions  at  many 
other  ports,  especially  those  of  Central  America  and  the 
west  coast  of  Mexico: 

*'To  appreciate  fully  the  need  for  greater  care  and 
more  efficient  packing  one  should  really  take  a  trip  down 
the  West  Coast  of  South  America  as  far  as  Mollendo, 
Peru,  and  then  journey  inland  as  far  as  Cuzco,  or  up 
over  the  mountain  passes  to  Cerro  de  Pasco  and 
Huanuco. 

Unloading  Cargo. — '^In  most  instances  all  freight  for 
the  West  Coast  of  South  America  must  be  unloaded  from 
the  steamer  into  a  launch  or  lighter  in  the  open  bay  or 
roadstead,  and  then  to  the  dock  or  pier,  while  the  lighter 
is  often  tossed  about  on  the  breakers.  These  lighters  or 
barges  come  out  from  shore  on  the  arrival  of  a  steamer, 
fasten  to  her  with  a  bow  and  stern  line,  then  swing  clear, 
as  the  ocean  swell  keeps  both  barge  and  steamer  moving 
and  their  up-and-down  motion  is  by  no  means  coincident. 
A  sling  full  of  merchandise  consisting,  say,  of  a  box,  a 
barrel,  and  a  crate,  weighing  perhaps  1,500  pounds,  is 


212  EXPORT  PACKING 

swung  over  the  ship^s  side  and  lowered  to  within  15  or 
20  feet  of  the  water.  When  the  barge  comes  beneath  the 
swinging  sling  down  goes  the  merchandise  with  a  rush 
to  catch  the  barge.  The  package  on  the  bottom  receives 
the  full  force  of  the  impact. 

**In  many  ports  on  this  coast  there  is  further  rough 
handling  after  the  goods  are  landed.  There  are  few 
trucks  in  the  warehouses,  and  much  of  the  merchandise 
is  transported  on  the  shoulders  of  men,  who,  instead  of 
lowering  their  burden  easily  or  having  someone  help 
them,  simply  stand  erect  and  let  the  cases  fall.  More- 
over, warehouse  accommodations  may  not  be  sufficient 
for  all  goods  landed.  In  such  instances  the  shipments 
are  liable  to  damage  by  exposure  to  the  elements. 

Interior  Transport  in  Peru.— ''Another  fact  usually 
lost  sight  or  by  the  exporter,  is  that  after  arrival  at  the 
port  of  destination  a  considerable  amount  of  the  ship- 
ment has,  in  all  probability,  to  be  transported  inland  over 
devious  mountain  trails  or  through  jungle  paths  before 
it  reaches  its  final  destination. 

*^Take,  for  example,  goods  that  are  consigned  to 
Tarma,  Huanuco  or  Mayobamba  in  the  interior  of  Peru. 
As  vehicular  traffic,  owing  to  the  narrow  roads  and 
mountain  passes,  is  impossible,  all  inland  transportation 
is  effected  by  burro  or  mule  trains.  The  muleteers  and 
cargo  dories  are  no  respecters  of  merchandise  and  in 
consequence  it  is  no  uncommon  sight  to  see  the  trails 
strewn  with  goods.  In  many  places  the  old  Inca  trails 
are  so  narrow  in  the  mountainous  regions  that  two  burro 
trains  cannot  pass  one  another  without  one  string  of 
donkeys  being  faced  to  the  inside  wall  of  the  trail  while 
the  others  pass  by,  picking  their  way  carefully  along  the 
edges  of  the  precipice  which  frequently  has  a  sheer  drop 
of  several  hundreds  of  feet. 

**As  another  example  of  the  necessity  for  strong  and 
proper  packing,  let  us  follow  the  routine  of  one  of  our 
shipments  to  our  branch  at  Santiago,  Chile.  This  is  what 
takes  place  after  the  ship  has  anchored  at  its  destination 
and  starts  discharging  cargo. 


Llama  Pack  Train  in  Peru. 
Method  of  transporting  goods  in  the  interior  of  Peru. 


Courtesy  of  The  Americas. 
Unloading  Flour  from  a  Lighter. 
Typical  West  Coast  method  of  unloading  flour  and  other  goods, 
213 


Courtesy  of  The  Americas. 
Unloading  of  Auto  Trucks. 
Note  the  condition  of  the  case  heing  lowered,  due  to  had  packing. 


Courtesy  of  The  AmericaB. 
Badly  Packed  Agricultural  Implements. 
Shows  damaged  condition  of  case  when  it  arrived  in  Chile. 
214 


CLIMATE  AND  PORT  FACILITIES         215 

Follow  This  Shipment  to  Chile.-  ''In  many  cases  the 
packages  are  unloaded  from  between  decks,  being  drawn 
to  the  hold  by  the  sling,  from  there  lifted  over  the  side 
to  be  dropped  into  lighters  which  sometimes  have  a  per- 
pendicular movement  of  15  feet.  In  no  case  is  any  care 
used  by  the  officer  in  charge  of  the  unloading  to  see  that 
the  packages  land  in  the  lighter  as  they  should.  As 
many  of  the  lighters  are  two  or  three  hundred  tons,  it  is 
necessary  to  pack  case  on  case,  sometimes  as  many  as 
six  or  eight  layers  of  cases  of  different  sizes  and  con- 
struction. The  lighters  are  then  moved  to  the  dock  where 
the  packages  are  unloaded  by  slings  and  again  receive 
rough  treatment  in  dropping  onto  the  dock.  From  the 
dock  to  the  custom  house  car  the  packages  are  handled 
by  slings  and,  as  the  cars  are  very  small  they  are  loaded 
with  from  two  to  five  layers  of  cases.  The  car  is  moved  to 
the  warehouse  of  the  custom  house  and  cases  dropped  to 
the  cement  floors.  After  documents  are  presented  for 
dispatch,  packages  are  again  loaded  onto  the  same  style 
of  car  in  the  same  manner  and  taken  to  the  Eevision 
Department  of  the  custom  house  and  again  dropped  to 
the  floor.  After  revision  they  are  again  loaded  onto  the 
car  and  taken-  to  the  street,  where  another  unloading 
operation  is  performed.  From  the  street  the  packages 
are  loaded  to  the  dray  which  takes  them  to  the  railroad 
station,  where  they  are  dumped  on  the  platform.  From 
the  platform  another  handling  is  made  to  the  car.  Arriv- 
ing at  destination,  it  is  customary  to  load  the  drays  sev- 
eral layers  deep,  and  arriving  at  the  branch  the  packages 
are  unloaded  in  the  street.  The  packages  from  the  higher 
layers  are,  in  most  cases,  dropped  to  the  street  which  is 
granite  paved.  From  the  street  they  are  rolled  into  the 
branch.  The  warehouse  being  in  the  cellar  of  the  build- 
ing, it  is  necessary  to  lower  these  packages  by  sling  to 
the  floor  of  the  warehouse. 

*'A11  these  conditions  must  be  taken  into  account  by 
us  if  we  desire  our  goods  to  reach  their  destination  intact 
and  our  customers  to  be  satisfied.  Ignorance  of  the  treat- 
ment his  goods  will  receive  during  transportation  to  con- 


216  EXPORT  PACKING 

sumer  excuses  no  exporter ;  instead,  it  creates  an  unfavor- 
able opinion  not  only  of  the  individual  shipper  but  of  all 
American  exporters. '^ 

Heavy  Weights  to  be  Avoided. — A  British  govern- 
ment report  recently  commented  at  length  on  ways  in 
which  merchandise  of  many  different  descriptions  ought 
to  be  packed,  calling  especial  attention  to  the  recommen- 
dations of  importers  in  Valparaiso,  Chile,  to  the  desira- 
bility of  limiting  the  weight  of  single  packages  to  about 
500  pounds  gross  because  of  the  fact  that  in  Chile  the 
work  of  stowing  in  custom  house  sheds  and  delivery  to 
consignee  is  all  performed  by  manual  labor.  Importers  in 
Colombia  urge  that  bales  and  cases  should,  if  possible, 
not  exceed  90  kilos  in  weight,  while  on  the  other  hand  it 
is  advisable  that  they  do  not  weigh  less  than  70  kilos. 

Interior  Transportation  by  Muleback.— The  well 
known  mule  has  frequently  to  be  utilized  for  the  trans- 
portation of  freight  to  the  interior  of  many  Central  and 
South  American  republics,  both  because  of  the  absence 
of  wagon  roads  and  because  of  the  perilous  nature  of 
many  of  the  trails  over  the  mountain  passes  where  the 
sure-footed,  if  obstinate,  mule  possesses  many  advan- 
tages as  a  carrier.  However,  it  is  highly  probable  that 
the  extent  of  the  requirement  for  special  packing  suitable 
for  muleback  transportation  has  always  been  much 
exaggerated.  In  all  countries  where  an  animaPs  back 
has  to  be  utilized  for  carrying  freight,  the  amount  of 
merchandise  thus  to  be  transported,  almost  always  to 
remote  and  thinly  populated  and  less  favored  districts, 
is  comparatively  small ;  the  great  bulk  of  the  imports  of 
the  country  in  question  being  not  only  received  but  con- 
sumed in  the  port  cities  or  the  more  important  places, 
which,  because  of  their  size  and  demands,  have  been 
closely  linked  with  the  ports  by  railways,  river  steamers 
or  adequate  highways.  None  the  less,  there  remains  that 
part  of  the  import  trade  of  a  given  country  which  has  to 
be  transported  into  the  interior  by  pack  trains  for  which 
careful  and  special  packing  must  be  provided.  Take,  for 
example,  and  by  way  of  illustrating  very  similar  condi- 


CLIMATE  AND  PORT  FACILITIES         217 

tioiis  in  other  countries,  the  following  description  of  in- 
terior transportation  in  Honduras,  which  appears  in 
Central  America  as  an  Export  Field,  by  Mr.  Garrard 
Harris: 

Trying  Conditions  in  Honduras. — **Pack  train  service 
extends  over  practically  all  of  Honduras,  perhaps  half 
the  population  or  more  being  dependent  on  pack  trains 
for  goods  from  the  outside  world.  But  it  does  not  follow 
from  this  that  half  the  imports  and  exports  of  the  country 
are  handled  by  pack  trains,  for  the  people  in  the  interior 
towns  and  villages  depend  to  a  large  extent  on  native 
produce,  and  aside  from  cloths,  various  kinds  of  clothing, 
and  some  flour,  little  is  transported  regularly  by  pack 
train.  However,  such  unexpected  articles  as  soda  foun- 
tains are  to  be  found  in  some  places  in  the  interior,  the 
drums  of  carbonated  water  being  carried  for  over  100 
miles,  and  several  gold  mines  have  brought  heavy  ma- 
chinery at  enormous  expense  200  miles  into  the  interior. 

**Most  interior  towns  are  supplied  by  pack  service 
from  the  Pacific  side  of  the  country,  the  goods  being 
landed  at  Amapala,  lightered  to  San  Lorenzo,  and  trans- 
ported for  the  most  part  in  ox  carts  over  the  cart  road  to 
Tegucigalpa,  and  from  there  to  the  interior  towns  by 
pack  mules. 

Weights  for  Mule  Loads. — **The  pack  trains  from 
Masica,  Ceiba  and  Trujillo  must  cross  the  very  abrupt 
and  very  moist  coast  range  of  mountains;  consequently 
the  average  load  is  not  as  large  as  in  other  parts  of  the 
country. 

'  ^  The  average  load  for  a  pack  mule  in  the  Ceiba  dis- 
trict is  approximately  8  ^^arrobas.*'  An  arroba  is  sup- 
posed to  weigh  24  pounds  and  so  200  pounds  can  be  con- 
sidered the  load  for  one  mule.  In  other  parts  of  the 
country  where  the  trails  are  a  little  better  and  the  grades 
lighter  the  average  load  is  250  pounds,  or  approximately 
10  arrobas. 

''An  important  fact  to  be  borne  in  mind  is  that  the 
loads  referred  to  above  are  mule  loads,  and  that  goods 
must  be  packed  in  units  having  just  half  the  mule  load 


218  EXPORT  PACKING 

weight,  for  it  is  necessary  that  the  load  be  evenly  divided 
in  separate  packages  across  the  animal's  back.  Pack- 
ages should  not  be  over  3  feet  in  length  or  over  14  inches 
in  any  other  direction ;  and  those  packages,  such  as  bales 
of  cloths,  that  do  not  present  a  square  edge  are  better 
for  packing,  although  the  square  edged  packages  are  not 
hard  to  handle. 

Desirable  Packing  for  Honduras. — *' Flour  is  generally 
shipped  in  12V2-pound  sacks,  which  in  turn  are  packed 
by  the  muleteers  in  gunny  sacks  and  covered  with  water- 
proof covering.  It  often  happens  that  the  flour  arrives 
in  the  interior  in  a  damp  condition,  and  if  it  could  be 
shipped  without  great  extra  expense  in  hermetically 
sealed  tins  its  arrival  at  destination  in  better  condition 
would  be  insured.  All  packages  should  be  covered  with 
a  heavy  paper  inside  the  outer  covering,  and  if  possible 
this  should  be  a  waterproof  material,  such  as  paraffin 
paper. 

*  *  Small  machinery,  such  as  sewing  machines,  should  be 
shipped  knocked  down  and  crated  with  special  reference 
to  the  balancing  of  weights  referred  to.  Pipes,  rails,  etc., 
should  be  cut  to  3-foot  lengths. '  * 


CHAPTER  IX 
PILFERING 

ACCORDING  to  the  statistics  of  the  United  States 
Railroad  Administration,  the  railroads  of  the 
United  States  lost  $45,000,000  in  1919  from  pilfer- 
age. Other  statistics  tell  us  that  the  marine  underwriting 
companies  of  New  York  City  alone  were  called  upon  to 
pay  in  1919  more  than  $3,000,000  in  losses  due  to  the  same 
factor.  It  is  true  that  this  book  does  not  concern  itself 
with  domestic  conditions,  but  the  two  losses  mentioned 
are  due  principally  to  the  same  cause,  that  is,  poor  pack- 
ing. Mr.  Robert  L.  Calkins,  freight  claim  agent  of  the 
New  York  Central  lines,  states  that  the  ''New  York  Cen- 
tral lines  are  paying  out  over  a  half  million  dollars 
monthly  in  freight  claims,  the  result  of  thefts  and  break- 
age of  shipping  cases.  This  means  approximately  $6,- 
000,000  a  year,  and  it  is  fast  developing  into  a  very 
serious  situation  for  the  railroads  of  the  country.  These 
losses  are  increasing  instead  of  diminishing.  .  .  . 
While  measures  have  been  adopted  with  a  view  of  Cur- 
tailing these  huge  losses,  the  wholesale  thefts  go  on  just 
the  same  and  the  companies  seem  powerless  to  check 
them.  On  the  New  York  Central  lines  alone  there  are 
over  400  detectives  at  work  on  this  matter,  yet  the  claims 
for  losses  continue  to  pour  in.  .  .  .  Pilferage  consti- 
tutes nearly  60  per  cent  of  our  losses." 

On  the  export  side,  a  prominent  marine  insurance 
house  stated  a  few  days  ago  that  theft  and  pilferage  of 
American  goods  in  transit  to  foreign  ports  have  reached 
a  degree  of  magnitude  which  is  not  only  alarming  for 
writers  of  marine  insurance,  but  promises,  if  continued, 
to  be  a  menace  to  foreign  trade.  Some  marine  insurance 
companies  are  refusing  to  grant  policies  against  this  type 
of  loss  except  in  a  very  limited  number  of  cases,  while 

219 


220  EXPORT  PACKING 

others,  in  self-defense,  have  been  compelled  to  raise  rates 
in  proportion  to  the  risk.  This  risk  is  estimated  by  the 
presidents  of  several  insurance  companies  to  range  all 
the  way  from  100  to  1,000  per  cent  greater  than  before 
the  war. 

In  marine  insurance  circles,  the  increase  in  pilferage 
is  ascribed  to  several  factors.  First,  we  have  bad  pack- 
ing, especially  on  the  part  of  export  concerns  that  are 
new  in  the  business,  houses  that  came  into  existence 
during  the  war.  These  concerns  are  in  the  main  the 
cause  of  the  many  complaints  from  consignees;  com- 
plaints due  to  second-hand  cases,  thin  lumber,  too  few 
nails,  lack  of  metal  strapping,  failure  to  use  mechanic- 
ally tightened  straps  and  so  on.  However,  there  are 
other  factors  producing  these  very  heavy  losses,  one 
being  the  congested  conditions  existing  at  shipping  ports, 
while  a  lowered  standard  of  honesty  is  alleged  by  some 
insurance  people  to  be  a  most  potent  element  in  the  situa- 
tion. It  is  stated  by  men  in  a  position  to  know  that  in 
many  Mexican,  South  American  and  Italian  ports  thiev- 
ery is  carried  on  in  an  organized  way,  and  it  is  claimed 
that  cargoes  to  South  American  ports  are  subject  to  pil- 
fering more  than  those  consigned  to  any  other  ports. 
It  is  said  to  be  impossible  for  a  ship  to  reach  a  Chilean 
port  without  its  cargo  having  been  pilfered  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree,  and  in  most  cases  it  is  impossible  to  trace 
the  crime  to  a  person  in  the  United  States  port,  on  the 
ship  or  in  the  Chilean  port. 

Effect  of  Pilfering  on  Insurance  Rates. — It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  in  this  connection  that  the  new  policy  of 
the  French  marine  underwriters  that  went  into  effect 
January  15,  1920,  takes  particular  cognizance  of  losses 
by  theft.  So  extensive  is  the  pilfering  of  goods  that 
European  marine  underwriters  have  become  very  much 
alarmed.  Some  companies  have  increased  the  rate  of 
premium  for  this  class  of  risk,  and  others  have  refused 
to  give  coverage  for  certain  South  American  ports.  The 
new  French  schedule  shows  minimum  rates  for  theft 
ranging  from  Is  6d  to  80s  per  cent,  and  these  rates  are 


PILFERING  221 

to  be  increased  50  per  cent  in  the  case  of  hosiery,  hats, 
boots,  shoes,  woolens,  perfumery,  foodstuffs,  and  so  on. 

The  rates  to  different  countries  for  theft  insurance 
vary  with  the  conditions  in  the  foreign  ports.  The  new 
French  tariff  ranges  from  Is  6d  to  Canada  and  the  United 
States,  to  80s  to  interior  points  in  Chile.  This  latter  is 
equivalent  to  4  per  cent  in  the  United  States.  Insurance 
against  theft  placed  with  American  companies  for  the 
interior  of  Mexico  or  the  west  coast  of  South  America 
would  be  at  rates  ranging  from  1  to  5  per  cent,  while 
coverage  against  the  same  risk  on  shipments  to  London 
or  other  ports  of  the  United  Kingdom  might  be  as  low 
as  25  cents. 

Testimony  from  the  Argentine. — In  a  recent  report  is- 
sued by  the  United  States  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the 
Argentine,  it  was  stated  that  the  increase  in  pilferage 
during  the  past  few  months  had  been  alarming.  **An 
effort  was  made  to  deduce  from  the  evidence  received  the 
value  of  the  goods  stolen,  but  this  was  impossible,  al- 
though in  general  terms  it  would  seem  to  run  into  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  dollars  in  gold.  One  curious 
feature  developed,  and  this  was  that  pilferage  occurs 
with  frequency  in  articles  sent  by  parcel  post,  for  which 
there  is  no  recourse  if  no  value  has  been  declared. 

**The  thefts  have  all  the  characteristics  of  system- 
atized robbery  by  people  who  know  the  merchandise  and 
also  know  the  peculiarities  of  the  shippers.  It  would 
seem,  moreover,  that  a  widespread  international  organ- 
ization was  at  work,  for  the  same  characteristics  are 
visible  in  thefts  of  merchandise  from  Italy,  France, 
Spain,  and  England  as  from  the  United  States. 

*'One  house  imported  a  lot  of  30  automobiles.  It  is 
the  custom  of  this  factory  to  pack  the  set  of  tools  in  one 
special  corner  of  the  case.  A  hole  was  cut  into  this  par- 
ticular corner  of  29  cases  and  the  tool  sets  were  removed. 
Apparently  the  thieves  knew  exactly  where  to  look  for 
the  articles  they  desired. 

''Another  house  which  imports  dry  goods  found  that 
zinc   lined   cases   had   been   opened,   the    silk   contents 


222  EXPORT  PACKING 

removed  and  an  equal  weight  of  coal  put  into  the  cases 
which  were  nailed  up.  Another  house  which  also  imports 
dry  goods  had  several  cases  of  silk  velvet  completely- 
rifled  and  in  the  cases  were  found  cotton  goods  of  an 
inferior  quality.  Each  of  these  cases  involved  losses 
amounting  to  nearly  $10,000  gold.  One  exporter  of  silk 
from  Europe,  with  the  idea  of  deceiving  the  thieves, 
changed  his  form  of  packing  and  also  his  shipping  marks, 
but  the  thieves  went  direct  to  the  packages  and  rifled 
them  as  though  they  knew  beforehand  what  they  con- 
tained. Two  separate  shipments,  each  containing  150,000 
sewing  machine  needles,  were  stolen,  the  empty  boxes 
arriving  in  Buenos  Aires,  although  in  this  instance  the 
shippers  have  complete  security  that  the  merchandise 
was  loaded  on  the  steamer  in  proper  condition  in  New 
York.  A  merchant  makes  his  custom  house  declaration 
in  harmony  with  the  shipping  documents  received  from 
abroad,  and  must  pay  duty  on  goods  that  are  stolen. 

*'The  British  steamship  companies  at  first,  and  more 
recently  the  American  steamship  companies,  have 
included  in  their  bills  of  lading  a  clause  to  the  effect 
that  the  steamer  will  not  be  responsible  for  pilferage  in 
all  cases  in  which  loss  can  be  covered  by  insurance. 
Insurance  companies  are  increasing  their  rates  and 
threaten  to  make  still  more  increases.  The  attitude  of 
the  steamship  companies  and  the  captains  is  a  direct 
invitation  to  unrestricted  theft  on  board  ship.  As  theft 
increases,  insurance  rates  will  increase  and  the  eventual 
prejudice  to  legitimate  commerce  threatens  to  be  very 
grave. 

**The  opinion  of  responsible  maritime  insurance 
agents  and  adjusters,  who  are  in  close  touch  with  the 
situation,  is  that  the  only  remedy  is  for  the  steamship 
companies  to  reassume  responsibility  for  pilferage,  and 
in  case  they  are  unwilling  to  do  so  governmental  pres- 
sure should  be  brought  to  bear  to  compel  them  to  elimi- 
nate this  clause.'' 

Before  taking  up  methods  of  pilfering  and  means  of 
detection,  it  would  be  well  to  state  that  claims  for  pilfer- 


PILFERING  223 

age  frequently  take  weeks  and  sometimes  months  to 
settle,  and  the  insurance  companies  should  receive  the 
closest  cooperation  from  the  shipper  and  consignee. 
These  latter  are  particularly  slow  in  reporting  claims  to 
carriers,  but  the  need  of  prompt  action  and  close  coop- 
eration cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized. 

How  Pilfering  Occurs. — It  should  not  be  supposed  for 
a  moment  that  because  a  case  of  goods  reaches  a  foreign 
port  with  a  portion  of  the  contents  lacking,  that  this 
means  that  a  thief  has  been  at  work  aboard  ship  or  in 
the  foreign  port.  Pilfering  may  occur  at  any  point  in 
the  journey  of  the  case ;  it  may  occur  in  the  very  factory 
manufacturing  the  goods,  or  it  may  occur  at  some  later 
stage.  It  is  therefore  of  the  utmost  importance,  if  pil- 
ferage is  to  be  traced,  that  every  effort  be  made  to  be 
sure  that  the  merchandise  leaves  the  factory  in  good 
shape.  The  writer  knows  of  a  shipment  of  typewriters 
in  which  several  cases  reached  their  destination  without 
the  goods.  Laborious  and  painstaking  investigation 
developed  that  when  this  shipment  left  the  factory  sev- 
eral of  the  cases  were  minus  machines;  instead  of  type- 
writers the  cases  contained  scrap  iron  of  the  requisite 
weight. 

This  method  of  substitution  is  extremely  common  and 
may  take  place  all  along  the  line.  Many  instances  are 
on  record  where  goods  have  been  stolen  from  their  cases 
and  the  cases  filled  with  stones,  bricks,  or  scrap  iron; 
the  cases  are  then  carefully  resealed  and  delivered.  Only 
recently  an  instance  of  this  was  called  to  the  writer's 
attention.  A  truckman,  employed  in  delivering  goods 
to  a  pier  in  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  and  later  found  to  be  a 
member  of  an  organized  gang,  was  caught  red-handed 
when  it  was  discovered  that  he  was  exchanging  cases  of 
high-grade  textiles,  en  route  to  the  pier,  for  other  cases 
of  the  same  weight  and  size  and  bearing  the  same  marks, 
but  containing  nothing  but  waste  material.  The  silk 
industry  has  been  particularly  hard  hit  by  this  method  of 
substitution,  and  frequently  it  is  extremely  difficult  to 
find  out  where  the  substitution  is  taking  place.    Truck- 


224  EXPORT  PACKING 

men  may  resort  to  other  methods.  The  receiving  stamp 
of  the  freight  clerk  may  be  stolen  and  the  bill  of  lading 
stamped,  the  goods  being  sold  and  the  stamped  bill  of 
lading  delivered  to  the  shipper.  A  box  of  stolen  mer- 
chandise may  be  substituted  for  an  empty  case,  and  so 
on.  A  short  time  ago  in  removing  cargo  from  a  British 
vessel  several  cases  of  linens  were  found  to  have  been 
tampered  with.  The  linens  were  subsequently  found  in 
the  berths  of  thirty-three  members  of  the  crew. 

The  variety  of  methods  used  is  limited  only  by  the 
ingenuity  of  the  thief.  Aboard  ship,  or  anywhere  en 
route,  a  very  common  method  is  to  loosen  the  nails  or 
straps  on  a  case,  slip  out  a  board,  and  abstract  as  much 
of  the  goods  as  possible,  the  board  then  being  replaced. 
With  this  method  it  is  not  possible,  unless  the  case  is 
sealed,  to  tell  that  it  has  been  tampered  with  until  opened 
in  the  custom  house. 


f 

Courtesy  of  The  Stanley  Works. 


Figure  1 


How  to  Minimize  Pilferage.— It  will  be  noted  that  I 
have  not  headed  this  paragraph  *  ^  How  to  Prevent  Pilfer- 
ing,'' for  the  reason  that  I  do  not  believe  any  absolute 
remedy  exists.  But  I  do  believe  that  it  is  possible  to 
minimize  it,  and  I  will  attempt  to  describe  as  fully  as  pos- 
sible the  most  approved  methods  in  use  for  checkmating 
the  thief.  It  is  not  possible  to  absolutely  prevent  pilfer- 
age because  pilferage  takes  place  when  goods  are  packed 
in  tin-lined,  hermetically  sealed  cases,  and  there  is  no 
safety  device,  so  far  as  the  writer  knows,  that  provides 
the  all-around  protection  which  would  be  required.  In- 
deed to  prevent  pilfering  the  only  sure  method  would  be 
to  ship  goods  in  burglar-proof  steel  cases.  The  writer 
believes  that  all  that  can  be  done  to  prevent  loss  of  this 


PILFERING  225 

character  is  to  adopt  certain  precautions  that  will  lead  to 
the  detection  of  the  theft,  or  deter  the  thief  from  tamper- 
ing with  the  case.  In  the  great  majority  of  shipments 
this  is  all  that  need  be  done,  and  is  absolutely  effective. 
Pilferage  may  be  minimized  by  the  manner  in  which 
the  contents  of  the  case  are  arranged.  For  example,  the 
writer  has  known  houses  that  shipped  shoes  with  all  the 
right  shoes  in  one  case  and  the  left  shoes  in  another. 
Another  house  has  shipped  the  bowls  of  coffee-grinders 
in  one  case  and  the  gears  in  another,  while  the  same 
house  packs  the  breach  mechanism  of  rifles  and  revolvers 
in  a  case  separate  from  that  in  which  the  stocks  are  sent 
out.  In  the  case  of  cutlery  the  writer  has  known  of  the 
sets  being  broken  up  in  the  packing,  the  knives  separate 
from  the  forks,  and  so  on. 


s.w. 


Coui  teay  of  The  Stanley  Works. 
Figure  2 

In  those  shipments  where  the  case  is  put  together 
with  screws,  these  latter  may  be  countersunk  and  the 
holes  filled  with  wax.  Tampering  with  the  case  can  be 
immediately  detected.  Another  method  is  to  drill  small 
holes  in  each  of  the  boards  on  the  sides,  top  and  bottom 
of  a  box,  pass  a  cord  through  these  holes  and  seal  the 
ends  of  the  cord  with  a  lead  seal.  A  board  cannot  be 
removed  without  cutting  the  cord.  This  method,  how- 
ever, weakens  the  box  by  drilling  holes  in  the  boards, 
and  the  holes  also  admit  moisture. 

Foreign  customers  of  a  large  New  York  house  spe- 
cializing in  automobile  accessories  advise  that  a  very 
good  method  for  preventing  pilfering  in  their  particular 
instance  is  the  practice  of  strapping  the  case  inside. 
The  walls,  bottom  and  cover  should  be  so  strapped,  not 


226 


EXPORT  PACKING 


necessarily  by  a  continuous  band,  that  it  is  impossible 
for  a  would-be  pilferer  to  remove  or  slide  out  one  board 
and  replace  it  without  detection.  A  whole  side  of  the 
case  has  to  be  destroyed  in  order  to  remove  a  single 
board. 

In  shipping  hats,  a  large  American  manufacturer 
states  that  when  his  goods  are  forwarded  by  steamer  to 
Mexico,  where  the  risk  of  theft  is  very  great,  a  double 
wooden  case  is  employed,  that  is,  one  case  inside  of 
another,  the  boards  of  the  inside  case  running  in  oppo- 
site directions  from  the  boards  of  the  outside  case. 


7 


d 


Courtesy  of  E.  J.  Brooks  a.  Co. 


Figure  3 


Steel  strapping,  properly  tightened  and  securely 
nailed,  will  do  much  to  make  it  difficult  for  a  thief  to 
enter  a  case,  but  one  of  the  best  methods  is  perhaps  the 
simplest.  This  consists  in  leaving  the  outside  of  the  case 
free  of  any  marks  or  plasters  that  would  call  attention 
to  the  character  of  the  contents.  Candy  and  shoes  are 
two  products  that  suffer  a  great  deal  from  pilfering,  and 
in  these  shipments  the  picture  of  a  shoe  or  of  a  box  of 
candy  on  the  case  is  without  question  the  delight  of  the 
thief.  It  might  be  stated  here  that  shipments  of  boots 
and  shoes,  wines,  liquors  and  so  on,  will  not  be  accepted 
by  the  steamship  companies  for  transportation  unless 
the  cases  are  protected  by  metal  straps,  wires  secured  by 
lead  seals  or  some  other  equally  efficient  device. 

It  is  frequently  a  wise  precaution  to  alter  shipping 
marks  from  time  to  time.    A  consignee,  for  example,  who 


PILFERING 


227 


is  a  regular  importer  of  shoes  becomes  known  by  his 
marks,  and  changing  of  the  mark  occasionally  will  often 
lead  the  thief  astray.  Another  very  simple  way  to  reduce 
pilfering  losses  to  a  minimum  is  to  see  that  good  cases 
are  used  and  that  these  cases  are  properly  constructed 
and  properly  nailed.  A  favorite  diversion  is  to  drop  a 
package,  and  in  case  it  is  defective  the  goods  are  scat- 
tered over  the  dock.  Obviously  an  excellent  opportunity 
is  given  for  stealing  a  certain  portion  of  the  contents. 


Courtesy  of  The  Durahl<i  Manufacturing  Co. 

Figure  4 


The  'Tour'  Bill  of  Lading.— The . liability  of  the 
ocean  carrier  is  much  more  limited  than  that  of  the  rail- 
road, but  none  the  less  there  is  a  margin  of  liability  and 
the  ocean  carrier  is  extremely  careful  to  inspect  all 
freight  received.  A  bill  of  lading  with  *' insufficiently 
packed '*  or  similar  quotations  is  known  as  a  ''four*  bill 
of  lading,  as  contrasted  with  a  '* clean''  bill,  which  indi- 
cates that  the  packages  have  been  received  in  good  order. 
It  should  be  the  duty  of  the  shipper  or  his  agent  to  see 
that  goods  delivered  in  bad  shape  to  the  dock  are  prop- 
erly conditioned  before  the  sailing  of  the  ship,  or  that 
they  are  omitted  from  the  shipment,  for  a  ^'fouP'  bill  is 
going  to  give  trouble  at  the  bank,  and  if  a  claim  is  made 


228  EXPORT  PACKING 

against  the  carrier  there  is  going  to  be  great  difficulty 
in  getting  that  claim  satisfied,  if  it  is  ever  satisfied.  Here 
we  have  another  urgent  argument  for  good  packing,  for 
obviously  a  shipper  is  going  to  meet  a  stone  wall  when 
he  tries  to  recover  for  pilfering  on  the  basis  of  a  "fouP' 
bill  of  lading. 

Sealing  Devices. — In  the  foregoing  pages  we  have 
summarized  the  results  of  practice  with  reference  to  pil- 
fering, and  we  have  also  mentioned  one  or  two  methods 
of  sealing.  There  are  in  addition  to  the  methods  stated 
a  number  of  devices  on  the  market  that  seal  a  case  very 
satisfactorily,  but  let  us  repeat  that  none  of  these  devices 
will  physically  prevent  pilfering.  The  only  object  of 
sealing  a  case  is  to  make  patent  tampering  with  the  case. 
A  seal  is  in  the  nature  of  a  red  flag  that  is  raised  as  soon 
as  the  seal  is  broken. 


Courtesy  oj    The  H^iynode  ^systtm.  Inc. 

Figure  5 

A  large  exporter  of  textiles  in  a  letter  containing 
packing  instructions  recently  sent  to  mills,  comments  on 
the  frequent  pilfering  of  cases  in  which  the  boards  are 
not  joined  by  tongue  and  groove.  The  pilfering  in  this 
instance  is  usually  accomplished  by  drawing  the  nails 
which  pass  through  the  metal  bands  at  both  ends  of  the 
top,  side,  or  bottom  and  slipping  one  board  forward 
sufficiently  to  gain  entry  to  the  case. 

In  order  to  prevent  this  form  of  loss  the  firm  in  ques- 
tion recommends  the  use  of  the  device  illustrated  in 
Figure  1.  This  device,  which  consists  of  a  pronged  metal 
strip,  is  nailed  on  the  inside  of  the  case  where  the  boards 
join,  and  is  said  to  prevent  the  removal  of  a  single  board. 


PILFERING  229 

In  the  letter  of  instruction  the  firm  points  out  that  a 
single  board  may  be  slipped  out  from  the  sides,  or  even 
the  bottom  of  a  case  with  almost  as  much  ease  as  from 
the  top,  and  that  the  use  of  the  device  for  the  protection 
of  the  cover  alone  is  not  adequate  protection  for  the 
case.  For  this  reason  they  advocate  the  use  of  the  device 
on  both  sides  and  bottom  as  a  further  guarantee  of 
security. 

Another  device  employed  for  the  same  purpose  and 
consisting  of  a  saw-edge  corrugated  piece  of  steel,  is  illus- 
trated by  Figure  2.  This  device,  which  is  driven  into 
adjoining  boards,  preventing  the  removal  of  one  board 
without  severe  mutilation  of  the  next  adjoining,  is  used 
by  an  international  house  exporting  silverware  and  has 
likewise  been  generally  used  by  European  exporters  of 
wines.  The  exporters  of  silverware  who  use  it  further 
protect  their  cases  by  sealing  and  strapping  them  with 
four  or  five  metal  bands  which  make  it  impossible  to  open 
a  case  without  leaving  evidence  of  pilferage. 

Another  device  which  has  proved  satisfactory  is  a 
safety  nail.  This  nail,  as  well  as  the  method  of  using  it, 
is  illustrated  by  Figure  3.  The  top  of  the  nail  is  notched 
underneath  and  after  being  driven  into  the  case  it  is 
impossible  to  remove  it  without  breaking.  This  is  shown 
in  the  fourth  cut  of  the  illustration,  where  the  nail  is 
being  broken  with  the  point  of  a  screwdriver.  It  is 
reported  that  this  nail  was  tried  out  at  the  Forest  Prod- 
ucts Laboratory,  Madison,  Wisconsin,  and  that  it  was 
found  very  efficient. 

A  fourth  device  is  a  safety  clip  or  seal,  and  is  illus- 
trated by  Figure  4.  The  clip  is  driven  across  the  out- 
side joints  of  the  box,  and  the  spear-shaped  nail  is  driven 
from  the  top  and  passes  through  the  hole  in  the  staple. 
The  case  is  effectually  sealed.  The  writer  has  seen  this 
clip  demonstrated  and  it  is  impossible,  after  applying  the 
clip,  to  open  the  case  without  disfiguring  it  badly. 

As  will  be  seen,  not  all  of  the  devices  mentioned  above 
are  seals  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  that  is,  that 
breaking  them  will  show  that  the  case  has  been  tampered 


230  EXPORT  PACKING 

with,  but  none  the  less  they  all  serve  the  purpose  of 
minimizing  pilfering.  Also  it  should  be  remembered  that 
none  of  these  devices  are  designed  to  take  the  place  of 
metal  straps. 

In  the  chapter  on  paper,  mention  has  been  made  of 
another  seal.  This  is  a  metal  sleeve,  illustrated  in  Figure 
5,  which  is  slipped  over  the  two  ends  of  a  metal  strap 
and  produces  a  joint  that  is  as  strong  as  the  strap  itself. 
This  seal  can  be  used  without  nailing  the  strap,  and  is 
well  adapted  to  light  boxes,  bales  and  bundles  the  char- 
acter of  which  does  not  admit  of  nailing.  The  seal  is 
attached  with  a  special  implement,  while  another  tool  is 
used  to  tighten  the  strap.  Where  the  case  is  heavy- 
enough  to  stand  nailing,  we  would  recommend  that  the 
strap  be  nailed,  for  the  seal  would  thereby  lose  none 
of  its  effectiveness. 


CHAPTER  X 

CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AS  AFFECTING 
PACKING 

WE  now  come  to  a  consideration  of  customs  require- 
ments in  foreign  countries  which  may  some- 
times have  an  important  bearing  on  the  kinds 
of  export  packages  which  should  be  used.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  in  shipping  to  certain  Latin  American 
countries,  but  it  seems  probable  that  a  few  peculiar 
conditions  in  this  regard  have  led  to  an  exaggerated 
idea  of  the  importance  of  the  whole  subject.  It 
is  the  rare  and  exceptional  case  that  any  attention 
whatsoever  is  called  for  or  is  given  by  shippers,  so 
far  as  special  packing  to  meet  custom  house  regulations 
is  concerned,  when  shipments  are  made  to  countries  of 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa  or  Oceania.  Neither  complaints 
nor  special  instructions  from  importers  in  any  markets 
of  these  parts  of  the  world  are  common.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  weights  of  containers  and  the  problem  of  pack- 
ing several  different  kinds  of  goods  in  one  box,  are  im- 
portant considerations  in  shipping  to  some  Latin  Ameri- 
can markets.  Yet  even  in  these  markets  importers  on  a 
large  scale,  those  most  familiar  with  overseas  business, 
almost  always  give  specific  and  detailed  instructions 
when  they  place  their  orders.  When  such  instructions  are 
thus  given,  they  must  be  adhered  to  with  the  most  punctil- 
ious care.  If  it  happens  that  an  order  is  received  from  a 
Latin  American  market  without  special  instructions, 
then  sometimes  the  American  shipper  has  time  to  write 
back  to  his  customer  and  inquire  for  any  specific  instruc- 
tions as  to  packing,  before  the  goods  themselves  are  ready 
for  dispatch.  In  the  contrary  case,  it  is  well  for  the 
shipper  to  study  the  custom  house  regulations  of  the 
country  to  which  the  goods  are  destined. 

231 


232  EXPORT  PACKING 

How  Customs  Methods  Vary. — It  must  never  be  as- 
sumed, as  seems  sometimes  to  be  the  case,  that  methods 
and  systems  of  assessing  customs  duties  in  other  coun- 
tries are  the  same  as  those  of  the  United  States.  By 
way  of  illustration  it  may  be  pointed  out  very  briefly 
that  while  most  of  our  American  import  duties  are  ad 
valorem  yet  in  many  countries  of  the  world,  perhaps  in 
most,  import  duties  are  specific,  that  is  to  say,  on  the 
weight  or  measurement  of  the  goods  as  specified  in  the 
tariff.  Then  it  is  to  be  observed  that  some  countries 
of  the  world,  notably  some  Latin  American  republics, 
pay  no  attention  at  all  to  the  invoice  value  of  goods  but 
their  tariffs  fix  an  official  valuation  for  merchandise  as 
it  is  officially  described,  and  duties  are  assessed  on  the 
official  valuation.  Again,  not  a  few  countries  of  the 
world  in  their  tariffs  fix  a  definite  stated  tare  allowance, 
no  matter  what  the  actual  tare  of  the  box,  case,  barrel 
or  other  container  may  be.  More  important,  however, 
is  the  fact  that  customs  duties  are  frequently  assessed 
on  the  gross  weight  of  goods,  that  is  to  say,  on  the  weight 
of  the  case  itself  as  well  as  the  weight  of  the  merchandise 
contained  therein.  In  such  instances  it  is  obvious  that 
export  packages  which  are  sufficiently  strong  to  meet  all 
the  hazards  of  overseas  shipment  and  local  foreign  con- 
ditions, and  at  the  same  time  are  of  lighter  weight  than 
other  packages  which  might  be  supplied,  will  be  favored 
by  the  importer.  His  total  cost  is  less  for  the  goods  con- 
tained in  the  lighter  package,  and  the  exporter  who  has 
studied  the  subject  and  devised  the  lighter  package  will 
be  favored  with  continued  orders  as  against  the  exporter 
who  ships  his  goods  in  unnecessarily  heavy  packages  in- 
volving higher  customs  duties. 

Special  Packing  for  Interior  Transportation. — It  is  in 
some  of  the  Latin- American  countries  particularly  that 
special  packing  to  meet  crude  systems  of  interior  trans- 
portation, or  lack  of  any  modem  transportation  facili- 
ties, makes  necessary  careful  attention  to  the  size  and 
even  the  shape  of  export  packages.  This,  too,  is  a  prob- 
lem which  is,  perhaps,  much  too  frequently  emphasized. 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    233 

Shippers  to  Turkey  or  to  China  are  seldom  called  upon 
to  make  their  packages,  or  at  least  their  outside  con- 
tainers, of  any  special  size  or  weight,  even  though  in- 
terior transportation  systems  in  those  countries  are 
crude  and  goods  have  to  be  transported  to  otherwise  in- 
accessible regions  on  camel-back  or  by  coolies.  It  is  the 
custom  in  those  countries,  and  in  many  other  countries  of 
the  world  where  conditions  are  primitive,  for  large  im- 
porters in  the  principal  ports  of  entry  to  receive  their 
goods  in  bulk  form  and  repack  them  as  may  be  neces- 
sary (often  in  assorted  miscellaneous  packages)  to  reach 
their  destination  in  the  interior  safely  and  satisfactorily. 
In  some  Latin-American  markets,  however,  there  has 
developed  the  desire  on  the  part  of  a  good  many  mer- 
chants at  interior  points  (only  accessible  by  pack  train 
or  by  crude  ox-carts,  by  complicated  systems  of  trans- 
fers from  railway  to  river  boat,  or,  at  times,  to  canoes, 
with  further  transfers  by  burro)  to  place  direct  import 
orders  with  original  manuf actuers ;  and  possibly  less  of 
the  trade  of  such  markets  is  handled  by  large  importing 
i^ouses  at  the  principal  port  cities,  with  the  result  that 
there  are  insistent  demands  from  these  markets  for  spe- 
cial packing  to  meet  these  local  conditions.  In  these,  as 
in  all  cases  of  instructions  given  by  customers,  shippers 
must  adhere  strictly  to  the  instructions  which  they  re- 
ceive. In  shipments  to  many  parts  of  the  world  no  par- 
ticular consideration,  apart  from  specific  instructions  re- 
ceived from  customers,  is  called  for  on  the  part  of  the 
shipper,  with  reference  to  size  and  weight  of  containers, 
except  as  those  features  are  governed  and  dictated  by 
general  principles  applying  to  all  overseas  packages.  In 
the  case  of  shipments  to  some  Latin- American  countries, 
however,  the  shipper  must  not  only  adhere  to  explicit 
instructions  given  him  by  his  customer  in  those  markets, 
but  may  even  be  expected  to  exercise  his  own  intelligence 
by  studying  local  conditions  in  the  market  to  which  a 
shipment  is  destined  and  adapting  his  packing  to  those 
conditions. 

More  Study  Required. — In  a  previous  chapter  some 


234  EXPORT  PACKING 

illustrations  have  been  given  of  climatic  conditions  and 
unloading  facilities  at  foreign  ports,  as  affecting  the  kind 
of  export  packages  in  which  the  shipper  should  dispatch 
his  goods.  These  are  matters  about  which  customers 
rarely  give  specific  instructions.  Every  shipper  is  sup- 
posed to  know  something  about  geography  and  everyone 
engaged  in  the  export  business  must  at  least  have  a  good 
map  of  the  world  before  him.  He  must  know  where  dif- 
ferent countries  are  located,  in  what  instances  shipments 
for  given  countries  have  to  cross  the  equator  or  pass 
through  hot,  damp  stretches  of  sea  water,  the  Red  Sea 
for  example,  preparing  his  export  shipment  accordingly. 
Every  man  engaged  in  the  export  business  must  under- 
stand that  even  as  in  New  York  and  other  American 
ports,  so  also  in  the  best  equipped  foreign  ports,  steamers 
sometimes  tie  up  alongside  of  piers  or  quays  onto  which 
their  cargo  is  immediately  discharged,  sometimes  into 
weather-proof  warehouse,  sometimes  not ;  while  in  other 
cases,  in  the  same  ports,  it  is  necessary  that  steamers 
anchor  in  the  stream  and  discharge  their  cargo  into 
lighters,  which  in  turn  have  to  be  discharged  on  shore, 
necessitating  double  or  treble  handling.  These  are  mat- 
ters of  elementary  education.  The  data  which  follows, 
alphabetically  arranged  under  the  different  countries  of 
the  world,  are  designed  to  give  merely  hints  or  reminders 
of  generally  prevailing  local  conditions  of  climate,  port 
facilities  and  the  principles  on  which  customs  duties  are 
assessed. 

Good  strong  packing  has  constantly  been  insisted 
upon  in  this  book  and  I  do  not  wish  to  suggest  any  de- 
parture from  this  rule,  but  it  is  highly  desirable  th^t  the 
exporter  carefully  study  the  requirements  of  the  country 
of  destination  when  he  is  making  up  his  export  packages 
in  order,  if  possible,  to  effect  substantial  savings  for  his 
foreign  customers.  Those  savings  will  eventuate  in  in- 
creased orders,  the  result  of  the  service  rendered  by  the 
exporter.  The  rule  of  good  strong  packing  may  therefore 
be  modified  to  read:  **The  exporter  should  in  every  in- 
stance consider  carefully  the  nature  of  the  goods  and  the 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    235 

method  used  for  levying  duty.'^  In  every  shipping  or 
traffic  department  there  should  be  at  hand  reliable  data 
on  this  subject,  so  that  every  effort  may  be  made  to  pro- 
tect the  interests  of  the  customer  at  the  other  end.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  a  little  carelessness  on  the  part  of 
the  shipper  may  mean  a  large  and  absolutely  unnecessary 
loss  to  the  consignee. 

Principles  Involved  in  Foreign  Tariffs. — Before  the 
war  there  were  two  broad  principles  laid  down  in  refer- 
ence to  duties  on  importations  into  countries  of  Conti- 
nental Europe.  Goods  that  paid  duty  above  a  certain  rate 
were  assessed  on  actual  or  legal  net  weight,  while  mer- 
chandise that  paid  a  lower  rate  was  assessed  on  gross 
weight.  The  fairness  of  this  is  obvious,  for  it  would  be 
manifestly  unjust  to  levy  a  high  rate  of  duty  on  the 
packing  boxes  containing  fine  goods,  paying  a  high  rate, 
while  in  the  case  of  ordinary  goods,  paying  a  very  low 
rate,  the  levy  on  the  packing  itself  did  not  amount  to  an 
important  item.  What  the  situation  will  be  when  Euro- 
pean tariff  policies  have  been  again  determined  it  is  im- 
possible at  present  to  predict. 

In  Latin  American  countries,  however,  there  is  no 
such  well  established  rule,  for  there  are  as  many  different 
principles  under  which  duty  is  assessed  as  there  are 
goods,  and  the  rulings  are  different  in  different  countries. 
But  even  in  those  countries  where  there  are  certain  uni- 
form principles  at  work,  there  is  only  one  way  to  obtain 
an  idea  of  packing  requirements  and  only  one  way  to 
solve  the  difficulties,  and  that  is  by  study  of  each  individ- 
ual instance,  when  buyers  have  not  given  specific  instruc- 
tions, as  they  may  reasonably  be  expected  and  asked  to 
do.  In  the  summary  which  is  given  later  of  custom  rul- 
ings in  different  countries,  great  divergence  is  evident 
and  it  will  be  seen  that  further  study  will  facilitate 
progress  toward  landing  goods  in  the  manner  most  eco- 
nomical and  profitable  to  the  importer. 

The  Different  Weights. — Before  taking  up  the  discus- 
sion of  different  countries,  however,  certain  general  state- 
ments should  be  made.    It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  con- 


236  EXPORT  PACKING 

slant  mention  made  of  *^net  weight/'  ^^ legal  weight*'  and 
*^ gross  weight.''  With  reference  to  the  gross  weight 
there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  great  difficulty,  but  defini- 
tions of  *' legal"  and  ** net"  weights  are  different  in  many 
countries  and  they  are  different  for  different  classes  of 
goods.  It  has  been  stated  that  *^by  actual  net  weight  is 
meant  the  weight  of  the  merchandise  alone,  without  any 
packing;  by  legal  net  weight  is  understood  the  gross 
weight  less  a  certain  percentage  for  tare."  However, 
from  the  examples  given  it  will  be  seen  that  this  is  en- 
tirely too  general  a  definition. 

Minimum  Duty  the  Ideal. — ^In  this  question  of  customs 
duties  it  is  not  only  a  matter,  especially  in  shipping  to 
Latin  America,  of  reducing  the  weight  of  a  package  as 
far  as  limits  of  safety  permit,  it  is  also  a  question  of  so 
packing  goods  with  reference  to  the  class  of  goods  in  the 
package  that  a  minimum  of  duty  will  be  paid.  In  a  great 
many  instances  the  instructions  with  the  order  will  give 
the  necessary  directions,  but  unfortunately  these  instruc- 
tions are  not  always  followed  and  this  inevitably  means 
loss  to  the  importer.  In  this  connection  let  us  take  as 
an  illustration  the  hypothetical  example  of  a  Chicago 
manufacturer  who  is  told  to  forward  certain  goods  to, 
let  us  say,  Siberia,  in  two  crates  of  300  pounds  each, 
metal  parts  in  one  case  and  wooden  parts  in  another. 
Thinking  that  he  is  greatly  helping  his  customer  he 
ships  all  of  the  goods  in  one  case  weighing  600  pounds, 
later  learning  that  more  than  300  pounds  can  not  be 
carted  over  the  rough  roads  of  Siberia;  that  there  is  a 
relatively  high  duty  on  metal  goods  and  a  relatively 
low  one  on  wooden  goods,  and  that  when  both  kinds  are 
packed  together  the  higher  rate  is  assessed  on  the 
whole  package;  and  also  that  the  customs  house  al- 
lows a  certain  weight  for  tare  which  would  not  have  been 
exceeded  by  either  one  of  the  two  crates,  but  which  was 
exceeded  by  the  case  weighing  600  pounds. 

Another  Bad  Example. — Again  we  have  an  in- 
stance of  goods  shipped  to  a  Central  American  country 
where  the  packing  material  used  was  extremely  heavy, 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    237 

although  the  duties  were  levied  on  gross  weight.  In  this 
instance  it  would  have  been  quite  possible  to  make  the 
packages  lighter.  Side  by  side  with  this  shipment  there 
were  crates  of  vegetables,  which  are  not  dutiable,  and 
in  this  instance  the  crates  were  made  of  the  lightest  ma- 
terial; many  of  them  had  broken  en  route  and  the  im- 
porter had  lost  heavily  on  the  shipment.  There  was  loss 
here  in  each  instance,  loss  which  was  considerable  and 
which  could  easily  have  been  prevented  had  due  care  been 
taken  by  the  shipper.  A  little  study  of  the  laws  of  this 
Central  American  state  would  have  led  to  reducing  the 
weight  of  the  packages  of  one  class  of  goods  and  increas- 
ing that  of  the  other. 

Customs  Regulations. — The  regulations  given  here 
are  merely  general,  and  although  they  have  been  brought 
up  to  date  as  far  as  possible,  many  of  them  will  be  sub- 
stantially modified  in  the  future  by  new  international 
agreements  and  new  trade  conditions.  It  will  be  neces- 
sary, therefore,  to  study  the  customs  rulings  of  each 
country,  and  this  is  advisable  in  any  case,  for  customs 
rulings  even  under  normal  conditions  are  subject  to  con- 
stant modifications  which  the  exporter  ought  to  know. 
Obviously  it  would  be  impossible  in  a  book  of  this  char- 
acter to  give  tariff  schedules  in  full,  and  all  we  have  at- 
tempted is  to  mirror,  as  it  were,  the  diversity  and  variety 
of  tariff  and  customs  requirements  and  specifications. 

Only  by  constantly  seeking  information  can  the  ex- 
porter keep  in  touch  with  what  is  going  on  in  this  regard, 
and  the  matter  published  in  this  chapter  is  in  no  sense  de- 
signed to  save  this  labor.  Each  shipment  ought  always 
be  handled  in  a  more  or  less  individual  manner,  and  the 
documents  relating  to  each  consignment  must  have 
special  attention  and  consideration. 

Consuls  of  all  foreign  countries  are  located  in  many 
of  the  larger  cities  throughout  the  United  States.  Their 
addresses  may  be  obtained  from  the  State  Department. 
The  latest  information  in  reference  to  customs  and  pack- 
ing requirements  may  always  be  obtained  at  the  con- 
sulates of  the  countries  to  which  shipments  are  destined. 


238  EXPORT  PACKING 

Abyssinia. — This  country  is  situated  close  to  the  equa- 
tor and  shipments  to  it  ordinarily  pass  through  the  torrid 
Red  Sea.  Packing  should  be  of  the  most  thorough  char- 
acter to  withstand  all  hazards  of  heat,  humidity,  rough 
handling,  and  exposure,  since  goods  destined  to  Abyssinia 
usually  experience  more  than  one  transhipment  en 
route. 

Theoretically,  the  customs  duties  on  imported  mer- 
chandise are  10  per  cent  ad  valorem.  Goods  are  landed  by 
lighter  at  the  port  of  Djibouti,  French  Somaliland,  and 
there  is  railroad  transportation  to  Dire-Dawa.  Away 
from  the  railroad,  transportation  is  chiefly  carried  on  by 
means  of  mules  and  camels.  A  mule  can  carry  a  load 
of  180  pounds  and  a  camel  one  of  450  pounds  in  this 
country.  Packages  should  therefore  weigh  accordingly, 
and  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  fact  that  one- 
half  the  load  is  normally  placed  on  each  side  of  the  pack 
saddle. 

Albania. — Packing  should  be  able  to  withstand  all 
forms  of  transportation  and  climatic  hazards.  At  least 
one  transhipment  is  involved  while  en  route.  There  are 
no  railroads  and  few  roads  of  any  kind  in  the  country. 
The  climate  is  temperate.  In  view  of  the  prevailing 
conditions  at  the  present  time  the  consular  regulations 
and  those  of  the  steamship  companies  should  be  inves- 
tigated and  followed. 

Algeria. — The  climate  of  Algeria  is  subtropical.  The 
provisions  of  the  French  tariff  apply,  with  few  excep- 
tions, as  do  French  consular  regulations.  Goods  should 
be  packed  to  withstand  discharge  into  lighters  and  all 
other  transportation  hazards.  There  is  direct  steam- 
ship connection  with  some  ports ;  for  others  transhipping 
is  necessary.  The  regulations  of  the  steamship  com- 
panies should  be  investigated.  Consuls  of  France  may 
be  asked  for  information  as  to  conditions  in  this  French 
colony. 

Arabia. — This  political  division  was  formerly  under 
Turkish  rule  but  is  now  being  divided  into  a  number  of 
new  states.    The  climate  is  tropical.    Shipments  to  Ara- 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    239 

bia  should  have  the  strongest  possible  packing  and  should 
be  designed  to  resist  all  hazards.  Steamers  pass  through 
the  Red  Sea  with  its  intense  heat  and  transhipments  are 
usual.  Marks  and  other  details  should  be  investigated 
in  each  individual  case,  as  it  is  impossible  at  present  to 
give  any  reliable  facts.  As  in  the  case  of  certain  coun- 
tries in  Africa  the  steamship  companies  have  a  number 
of  packing  requirements  that  must  be  observed. 

There  are  practically  no  railroads  or  wagon  roads  in 
this  part  of  the  world,  and  everything  is  transported  on 
the  backs  of  men,  mules,  asses,  or  camels.  A  camel  in 
Arabia  is  reported  to  carry  a  load  of  between  350  and 
390  pounds,  a  mule  about  250  pounds,  a  donkey  150 
pounds. 

Argentina. — Climatic  conditions  in  Argentina  closely 
approximate  those  of  our  South  Atlantic  States,  but 
shipments  destined  to  Argentina  must  pass  through  the 
tropics  on  their  voyage.  At  Buenos  Aires,  Bahia  Blanca, 
Rosario,  and  La  Plata  boats  may  discharge  at  docks  and 
quays,  but  transhipping  is  frequently  necessary.  In- 
terior transportation  in  Argentina  is  on  the  whole  very 
satisfactory. 

Duties  on  the  majority  of  articles  specified  in  the 
Argentine  tariff  are  levied  on  the  basis  of  legal  weight, 
in  other  words,  on  the  gross  weight  with  various  reduc- 
tions for  tare  based  upon  the  nature  of  the  packing. 
Since,  if  different  classes  of  merchandise  are  packed  in 
one  case  or  package,  the  customs  authorities  may  assess 
duty  on  the  whole  package  at  the  rate  to  which  the  high- 
est taxed  article  included  is  subject,  this  practice  is  best 
avoided. 

Many  classes  of  goods  imported  into  Argentina  are 
dutiable  on  the  weight  of  the  goods  and  the  individual 
container,  and  frequently  an  effort  is  made  to  reduce 
this  duty  by  shipping  goods  in  bulk  in  a  single  container. 

Articles  subject  to  duty  on  the  basis  of  the  weight 
of  the  goods  and  immediate  container,  if  imported  in  a 
single  container  without  individual  wrapping  are  dutiable 
by  net  weight  with  a  ten  per  cent  surcharge. 


240  EXPORT  PACKING 

Packages  should  bear  shipping  mark  of  consignee,  the 
number  of  package,  and  name  of  steamer  carrjdng  goods. 
Packages  may  be  marked  with  a  brush  or  stencil,  but 
the  stencil  has  always  been  preferred,  and  marking 
should  appear  on  two  adjacent  sides  of  the  package.  The 
Argentine  authorities  request  that  packages  be  protected 
with  special  care  against  pilfering. 

The  customs  requirements  in  reference  to  canned 
goods  of  both  animal  and  vegetable  origin  are  most  ex- 
acting and  detailed,  and  include  certain  provisions  with 
regard  to  certificates  of  health,  labelling,  and  composition 
of  containers  which  should  be  investigated  by  exporters 
of  these  products.  Similar  regulations  likewise  apply  to 
shipments  of  plants  and  seeds.  Information  as  to  these 
regulations  may  be  obtained  upon  application  to  the  con- 
sul general  of  Argentina  in  New  York  City. 

Australia. — Packing  for  Australia  must  be  strong  and 
designed  to  withstand  severe  handling.  Especially  must 
pilfering  be  guarded  against,  as  complaints  are  frequent 
on  this  score.  The  climate  ranges  from  sub-tropical  in 
the  south  to  tropical  in  the  north.  The  voyage  from  the 
United  States  is  through  hot  equatorial  waters.  Port 
conditions  are  in  general  good  and  vessels  discharge  at 
the  wharves  at  Melbourne,  Sydney,  Adelaide,  Brisbane, 
and  Fremantle.  Railroad  communications  are  satisfac- 
tory in  the  eastern  portion  of  Australia,  but  are  not  ex- 
tensive in  western  Australia.  However,  more  freight, 
except  for  way  points,  is  carried  by  coasting  vessels,  re- 
quiring transhipment  sometimes  more  than  once.  The 
gauges  of  the  several  different  States  of  the  Common- 
wealth vary,  requiring  unloading  and  loading  again  as 
the  State  boundaries  are  crossed.  Special  packing  for 
this  condition,  as  for  cart,  or  (in  northern  West  Aus- 
tralia) camel  transportation  to  reach  remote  interior  sec- 
tions, is  always  cared  for  by  the  large  importers  in  the 
chief  ports  and  requires  no  special  attention  from  Amer- 
ican shippers,  except  when  specific  instructions  have  been 
given. 

Duties  are  assessed  ad  valorem  and  the  value  of  the 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    241 

goods  is  f.  o.  b.  value  at  port  of  shipment  plus  ten  per 
cent.  First  is  taken  the  value  of  the  article  at  the  net 
price  that  would  be  paid  for  the  goods  by  a  cash  customer 
at  home.  To  this  is  added  inland  cartage  and  freight 
charges,  plus  lighterage  charges  and  a  number  of  other 
charges.  On  the  contrary,  a  number  of  items,  such  as 
outside  packing,  dock  fees  and  others,  are  not  included  in 
the  dutiable  value.  Strictly  speaking,  however,  these 
points  are  for  the  man  who  makes  out  the  invoices,  and 
the  one  in  charge  of  the  packing  should  only  see  that  his 
packing  is  sufficient  for  the  trip,  and  that  it  is  as  eco- 
nomical as  the  situation  warrants. 

Certain  shipping  lines  have  their  own  regulations,  as, 
for  example,  the  limiting  of  shipments  packed  in  bags 
or  sacks  to  a  maximum  gross  weight  of  200  pounds,  the 
marking  of  gross  weight,  in  pounds,  on  packages  and  the 
requirement  that  cases  destined  beyond  direct  ports  be 
iron-strapped.  These  regulations  should  be  carefully 
investigated. 

Restrictions  on  importations  of  cigarettes,  tobacco 
and  cigars  are  stringent  and  should  be  carefully  inves- 
tigated before  packing.  This  also  applies  to  importations 
of  alcoholic  liquids  and  drugs. 

The  Trade  Descriptions  Act  of  1905  demands  most 
careful  study.  It  provides  that  a  carefully  defined  trade 
description  must  be  applied  to  certain  classes  of  goods  in 
the  form  of  a  label  or  brand ;  and  is  strictly  enforced  with 
respect  to  such  commodities  as  shoes,  socks,  articles  of 
food  and  drink,  medicines  and  pharmaceutical  prepara- 
tions, apparel,  jewelry,  fertilizers,  seeds,  and  plants. 

The  principal  provisions  of  the  act  are  to  the  effect 
that  (1)  the  importation  or  introduction  into  Australia 
of  any  specified  goods  unless  there  is  applied  to  them  a 
trade  description  of  such  character,  relating  to  such  mat- 
ters and  applied  in  such  manner  as  is  prescribed,  may  be 
prohibited.  (2)  No  person  shall  import  any  goods  to 
which  a  false  trade  description  is  applied.  These  regula- 
tions shall  not  prescribe  a  trade  description  which  dis- 
closes trade  secrets  of  manufacture  or  preparation,  un- 


242  EXPORT  PACKING 

less  in  the  opinion  of  the  Governor-General  the  disclosure 
is  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  health  or  welfare 
of  the  public.  Moreover,  it  is  specifically  provided  that 
outside  packages  need  not  be  marked  at  all  unless  they 
are  the  sole  containers  of  goods  to  which  it  is  imprac- 
ticable to  apply  the  trade  description. 

The  goods  to  which  the  provisions  of  the  act  apply 
are : 

**(a)  Articles  used  for  food  or  drink  by  man,  or 
used  in  the  manufacture  or  preparation  of  articles  used 
for  food  or  drink  by  man ;  or 

**(b)  Medicines  or  medicinal  preparations  for  inter- 
nal or  external  use;  or 

**(c)  Manures;  or 

**(d)  Apparel  (including  boots  and  shoes)  and  the 
materials  from  which  such  apparel  is  manufactured;  or 

**  (e)  Jewelry;  or 

''(f)  Seeds  and  plants.'' 

The  trade  description  to  be  applied  shall  comply  with 
the  following  provisions: 

*'(a)  It  shall  be  in  the  form  of  a  principal  label  or 
brand  affixed  in  a  prominent  position  and  in  as  permanent 
a  manner  as  practicable  to  the  goods,  or  where  affixture 
to  the  goods  is  impracticable,  to  the  coverings  containing 
the  goods ;  and 

**(b)  It  shall  contain  in  prominent  and  legible  char- 
acters a  true  description  of  the  goods,  and  the  name  of 
the  country  or  place  in  which  the  goods  were  made  or 
produced;  and 

**  (c)  In  cases  where  any  weight  or  quantity  is  set  out, 
it  shall  specify  whether  the  weight  or  quantity  so  set  out 
is  gross  or  net. 

**In  the  case  of  the  following  goods,  the  trade  de- 
scription shall  in  addition,  comply  with  the  following 
provisions : 

'*In  the  case  of  articles  of  apparel,  the  trade  descrip- 
tion shall  state  the  nature  of  the  principal  material  of 
which  the  articles  are  made,  and  shall,  wherever  practi- 
cable, be  applied  by  means  of  indelible  stamping. 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    243 

**  "Where  articles  of  apparel  are  manufactured  of 
fibrous  material  containing  not  more  than  10  per  cent  of 
fibre  other  than  the  preponderating  fibre,  the  name  of 
the  preponderating  fibre,  (e.  g.,  *WooP)  may  be  used  to 
indicate  the  nature  of  the  material.  In  other  cases  the 
trade  description  shall  set  out  the  names  of  the  principal 
fibres  present  in  the  material,  or,  alternatively,  describe 
the  material  as  being  made  of  the  preponderating  fibre 
*and  Other  Fibres'  (e.  g.,  'Wool  and  Other  Fibres'). 

*'In  the  case  of  piece  goods  intended  for  or  commonly 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  articles  of  apparel,  the  trade 
description  shall  specify  the  names  of  the  principal  fibres 
of  which  the  material  is  composed. 

**  Where  the  material  does  not  contain  more  than  10 
per  cent  of  fibre  other  than  the  preponderating  fibre,  the 
name  of  the  preponderating  fibre  may  be  used  in  the  trade 
description  to  indicate  the  nature  of  the  material.  In 
other  cases  the  trade  description  shall  set  out  the  names 
of  the  principal  fibres  present  in  the  material,  or,  alter- 
natively, describe  the  material  a$  being  made  of -the  pre- 
ponderating fibre  *and  Other  Fibres'  (e.  g.,  *Wool  and 
Other  Fibres').  In  cases  where  any  substance  (other 
than  ordinary  dressing)  has  been  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion or  manufacture  which  has  the  effect  of  loading  or 
weighting  the  material,  the  word  *  Loaded'  or  *  Weighted* 
shall  also  be  included  in  the  trade  description. 

**In  the  case  of  boots  and  shoes  manufactured  wholly 
or  partly  from  leather  or  any  imitation  thereof,  the  trade 
description  shall  set  out  the  principal  material  from 
which  they  have  been  made,  and  unless  the  soles  are  solid 
leather,  without  admixture  or  addition  other  than  or- 
dinary fillers  of  cork  or  of  waterproofed  felt,  shall  state 
the  nature  of  the  admixture  or  addition,  and  a  statement 
of  the  material  or  materials  composing  the  sole  shall, 
in  addition,  be  conspicuously,  legibly,  and  indelibly 
stamped  upon  or  impressed  into  the  outer  surface  of  the 
sole  of  each  boot  or  shoe. 

**In  the  case  of  leather  containing  any  loading  of  any 
mineral  or  other  weighting  substance,  the  trade  descrip- 


244  EXPORT  PACKING 

tion  shall  include  a  statement  setting  out  the  name  of 
each  loading  substance  contained  in  the  leather,  and  the 
percentage  thereof.  Provided  that  the  following  shall 
not  be  deemed  to  be  loading  substances  within  the  mean- 
ing of  this  Regulation:  Glucose  and  sugar  to  the  extent 
of  not  more  than  3  per  cent  taken  together,  and  fats  and 
oils  used  in  the  manufacture  and  preparation  of  the 
leather. 

**In  the  case  of  gold  jewelry  the  carat  quality  shall 
be  conspicuously  set  out  in  the  trade  description  applied 
to  the  goods,  and  shall  also,  where  practicable,  be  legibly 
stamped  or  engraved  upon  each  article. 

*^In  the  case  of  jewelry  wholly  or  partly  covered  by 
gold,  the  words  *  Rolled  Gold,'  ^Gold  Cased,'  ^Gold 
Plated,'  or  *Gilt,'  as  the  case  requires,  shall  be  conspicu- 
ously set  out  in  the  trade  description  applied  to  the  goods, 
and  shall  also,  where  practicable,  be  legibly  stamped  up- 
on each  article. 

**In  the  case  of  silver  jewelry  not  marked  with  a 
British  hall-mark,  the  degree  of  millesimal  fineness 
(e.g.,  *.925  fine')  shall  be  conspicuously  set  out  in  the 
trade  description  applied  to  the  goods,  and  the  number 
indicating  such  degree  of  millesimal  fineness  shall  also, 
where  practicable,  be  legibly  stamped  or  engraved  upon 
each  article." 

**In  the  case  of  jewelry  which,  not  being  gold  or  sil- 
ver, nor  coated  with  gold  or  silver,  is  colored  to  represent 
gold  or  silver  or  gold  and  silver,  the  w^ords  *  Imitation 
Jewelry'  shall  be  conspicuously  set  out  in  the  trade  de- 
scription applied  to  the  goods,  and  the  word  'Imitation' 
shall  also,  where  practicable,  be  legibly  stamped  upon 
each  article." 

The  detailed  provisions  of  the  act  with  respect  to 
apparel,  including  boots  and  shoes,  the  material  from 
which  apparel  is  manufactured,  and  jewelry,  are  set 
forth  in  a  twenty-five  page  pamphlet  which  may  be  pro- 
cured by  manufacturers  of  the  commodities  affected  from 
the  representative  of  the  Department  of  Trade  and  Cus- 
toms of  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia  in  New  York  City. 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    245 

Austria. — Climatic  conditions  in  Austria  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  eastern  Atlantic  States,  and  under  normal 
conditions  railroad  transportation  is  excellent.  Under 
the  terms  of  the  Peace  Treaty,  Austria  is  a  completely 
landlocked  country  and  goods  destined  to  Austria  are 
normally  shipped  via  German,  Dutch,  Italian  and  other 
European  ports.  The  conditions  applying  to  these  coun- 
tries respectively  will,  in  general,  therefore,  apply  to 
shipments  to  Austria. 

No  unusual  packing  is  called  for,  apart  from  adequate 
overseas  protection.  Owing  to  the  uncertain  political 
conditions  at  present  reigning  in  Austria,  information 
with  respect  to  the  permanent  tariff  of  that  country  is 
lacking.  Under  the  former  Austro-Hungarian  tariff 
goods  dutiable  at  the  rate  of  7.50  crowns  or  less  per  100 
kilos  for  which  no  tare  allowance  was  specified  by  the 
tariff,  were  dutiable  on  the  basis  of  gross  weight.  Duties 
on  goods  which  were  subject  to  a  higher  rate  of  duty  than 
the  above  were  assessed  on  the  basis  of  net  weight,  which 
in  this  instance  was  equivalent  to  gross  weight  with  de- 
duction of  tare  allowance  according  to  the  tare  schedule 
annexed  to  the  tariff.  In  the  case  of  liquids  the  dutiable 
weight  included  that  of  the  immediate  container. 

Bahama  Islands. — The  climate  of  the  Bahama  Islands 
is  tropical.  The  islands  are  reached  at  frequent  inter- 
vals by  direct  steamer  from  New  York.  Goods  are  or- 
dinarily transferred  by  lighters.  There  are  no  official! 
restrictions  with  respect  to  shipping  marks  or  weights. 
The  Bahama  Islands  are  a  British  colony  and  informa- 
tion about  local  conditions  may  be  obtained  from  British 
Consular  officials. 

Belgium. — The  climate  of  Belgium  is  similar  to  that 
of  New  York.  There  are  frequent  and  good  direct  sail- 
ings. At  the  ports  of  Antwerp  and  Ghent  the  vessels 
discharge  at  the  docks  or  quays,  with  improved  modem 
facilities.  Transportation  by  railway  and  canal  is  similar 
to  our  own.  There  are  no  official  restrictions  as  to  marks 
or  weights,  but  several  of  the  shipping  companies  stipu- 
late that  gross  weights  in  pounds  must  be  marked  on 


246  EXPORT  PACKING 

packages.  Goods  imported  into  Belgium  are  dutiable 
on  actual  or  net  weight  and  ad  valorum.  A  new  tariff 
went  into  effect  June  12,  1920. 

Bermuda. — Climate  is  subtropical.  There  are  direct 
steamers  from  New  York.  There  are  no  official  restric- 
tions with  respect  to  marks  or  weights.  British  consuls 
may  be  asked  for  information  regarding  this  colony. 

Bolivia. — Shipments  to  Bolivia  should  be  most  care- 
fully protected  against  damage  by  the  elements  and  also 
against  the  perils  of  rough  handling.  The  instructions  of 
the  customer  should  be  most  carefully  followed.  The 
goods  are  exposed  to  the  hardships  of  several  tranship- 
ments by  lighters,  rail  and  river  boats,  and  the  interior 
means  of  transportation  are  most  primitive. 

Bolivia  lies  wholly  within  the  tropics,  but  the  tem- 
perature at  a  given  place  depends  entirely  upon  the  alti- 
tude of  its  location.  The  climate  of  La  Paz  and  Potosi, 
the  two  principal  cities  which  are  respectively  12,000  and 
13,600  feet  above  sea  level,  is  normally  temperate.  Bo- 
livia has  a  rainy  season  lasting  from  December  to  May, 
and  a  dry  season  from  May  to  December.  In  south- 
eastern Bolivia  the  climate  is  subtropical. 

Bolivia  is  entirely  landlocked  and  all  commerce  with 
the  outside  world  passes  through  the  territory  of  its 
neighbors.  The  ports  through  which  this  commerce 
passes  are  Antofagasta  and  Arica,  in  Chile,  and  Mol- 
lendo,  in  Peru,  on  the  Pacific;  Buenos  Aires,  for  transpcyt 
by  the  Argentine  railway  route  to  the  southern  parts 
of  Bolivia ;  and  Para,  on  the  Brazilian  Amazon,  for  the 
very  limited  commerce  of  the  extreme  northeast.  Of 
the  six  cities  of  Bolivia  with  a  population  of  20,000  or 
more,  only  La  Paz  and  Oruro  can  be  reached  by  rail. 
The  transfer  of  freight  throughout  the  interior  of  Bolivia 
is  by  means  of  donkeys,  llamas,  mules  and  Indians.  Re- 
ports from  Bolivia  state  that  a  llama  can  carry  a  bale  of 
not  over  100  pounds,  a  donkey  can  carry  two  100  pound 
bales,  one  on  each  side,  while  a  mule  can  carry  two  125 
pound  bales,  one  on  each  side. 

Articles  on  which  duty  is  assessed  may  be  dutiable 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    247 

either  on  net  weight,  gross  weight,  or  on  the  weight  of 
the  merchandise,  together  with  that  of  the  immediate 
packing,  such  as  a  cardboard  box  or  paper.  The  term 
*' immediate  packing''  does  not  include  wooden  or  tin 
boxes,  or  any  material  serving  as  a  covering  for  the  out- 
side containers.  Mixed  packing  is  not  subject  to  penalty 
unless  it  is  employed  as  a  method  of  defrauding  the 
customs. 

Marks  and  numbers  and  net  and  gross  weights  should 
appear  on  all  packages.  Special  care  should  be  taken  also 
to  mark  on  each  package  in  large  letters,  **En  transito  a 
Bolivia"  (In  transit  to  Bolivia).  This  method  has  been 
adopted  for  the  purpose  of  expediting  the  landing  of 
freight  and  its  separation  and  entry  in  the  respective 
warehouses;  and  also  to  prevent  customs  duties  being 
collected  twice  on  the  same  goods.  Packages  sent  by  way 
of  Chile  must  be  marked  with  a  stencil,  while  those  sent 
through  other  countries  may  be  marked  either  with  a 
stencil  or  brush. 

Brazil. — Goods  destined  to  Brazil  should  be  packed 
with  due  allowance  for  rough  handling  to  wljich  they  may 
be  subject.  At  the  ports  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Para, 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul  and  Pernambuco,  steamers  may  dock 
at  quays,  but  at  many  other  ports  along  the  entire  coast 
goods  must  be  discharged  into  lighters,  often  in 
open  roadsteads.  Some  of  the  principal  ports  are 
reached  by  direct  steamers,  others  only  Sy  transhipment. 
The  tropical  climate  of  Brazil  must  also  be  taken  into 
consideration  and  goods  packed  accordingly,  above  all  for 
the  Amazon  ports.  Interior  transportation  in  Brazil  is 
to  a  large  extent  fluvial,  since  railroad  transportation,  ex- 
cepting in  the  southern  portions  of  the  country,  is  not 
extensive,  and  overland  transportation  is  carried  on  by 
mules,  carts,  and  other  methods,  even  (in  the  remote 
Amazon  country)  by  canoes. 

Under  the  Brazilian  tariff,  articles  which  are  dutiable 
by  weight  are  specifically  subject  to  duties  either  on  the 
basis  of  gross  weight,  legal  net  weight,  or  actual  net 
weight.    Gross  weight  is  that  of  the  goods  and  packing 


248  EXPORT  PACKING 

together,  with  the  exception  of  rough  wooden  containers. 
Legal  net  weight  is  equivalent  to  gross  weight  less  the 
different  tare  allowances  specified  in  the  tariff  for  vari- 
ous kinds  of  merchandise  and  containers.  Actual  net 
weight  is  the  weight  of  the  merchandise  without  any  pack- 
ing. If  goods  dutiable  on  legal  net  weight  and  actual  net 
weight  are  imported  in  the  same  package  the  duty  on  both 
is  assessed  on  the  basis  of  actual  net  weight.  When  goods 
dutiable  on  net  weight  but  subject  to  different  tare  al- 
lowances are  imported  in  the  same  package,  duty  is 'as- 
sessed on  the  basis  of  actual  net  weight.  When  goods 
subject  to  different  rates  of  duty,  all  being  subject  to 
duty  on  the  basis  of  gross  weight,  are  imported  in  the 
same  package,  the  weight  of  the  packing  is  proportion- 
ately distributed  among  the  various  kinds  of  merchandise 
which  the  package  contains.  In  this  instance  some  study 
of  the  Brazilian  tariff  will  repay  the  exporter.  In  every 
instance  the  Brazilian  importer  should  clearly  specify 
the  packing  procedure  which  he  wishes  followed. 

Packages  may  be  marked  with  brush  or  stencil,  but 
the  practice  of  separating  or  breaking  up  shipments  for 
clearing  is  not  permitted.  Goods  for  different  consignees 
should  not  be  placed  in  the  same  case,  as  duty  will  have 
to  be  paid  on  all  the  goods  before  they  can  be  cleared. 
The  general  rule  of  good  packing  practice,  that  the  side 
of  the  case  where  mark  and  number  appear  should  be 
free  from  other  marks  or  instructions,  is  insisted  on  by 
the  Brazilian  authorities,  although  the  weights  need  not 
be  marked  on  the  packages. 

The  first  necessity  in  packing  goods  for  Brazil  is  that 
goods  should  be  so  cased  and  so  protected  within  the 
cases  that  they  can  be  safely  dropped  a  considerable  dis- 
tance. Goods  should  be  protected  against  dampness, 
against  heat,  in  case  they  are  stored  near  boilers,  against 
the  use  of  hooks,  and  so  far  as  possible  against  exposure 
to  rain  and  sea  water. 

In  portions  of  Brazil,  particularly  the  Amazon  River 
district,  the  cases,  nails  and  straps  used  for  packing 
goods  have  considerable  value.    Boxes  are  carefully  pre- 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING   249 

served  and  barrels  of  all  kinds  are  worth  more  than  their 
original  cost.  To  be  sure  this  only  applies  to  good  cases 
and  good  barrels,  and  if  the  exporter  wishes  to  add  an 
important  element  to  the  popularity  of  his  goods  in  this 
part  of  the  world,  he  will  see  to  it  that  his  packing  ma- 
terials are  first  class. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  Argentine,  the  Brazilian  authori- 
ties are  most  exacting  in  the  matter  of  labeling  goods. 
Manufacturers  of  pharmaceutical  preparations  and  food- 
stuffs should  consult  the  regulations  applying  to  these 
commodities  which  may  be  procured  at  the  Brazilian 
consulate. 

British  East  Africa. — Packing  should  be  sufficiently 
strong  to  withstand  tropical  heat  and  all  hazards  of 
transportation.  There  are  no  official  restrictions  as  to 
marks  or  weights,  but  the  requirements  of  the  steamship 
companies  should  be  investigated  and  followed.  Cargo  at 
Mombasa  is  discharged  into  lighters.  British  East  Africa 
is  usually  reached  from  the  United  States  by  tranship- 
ping en  route.  Information  with  respect  to  this  colony 
may  be  obtained  from  British  consular  officials. 

British  Guiana.— Shipments  to  British  Guiana  must 
be  prepared  to  meet  every  hazard  of  transportation  and 
tropical  climate.  Practically,  there  are  no  railways  and 
transportation  must  be  done  by  rivers,  man,  or  beast. 
Steamers  ply  directly  from  New  York  to  Georgetown. 
There  are  no  restrictions  as  to  marks,  although  the  dif- 
ferent steamship  companies  have  certain  requirements  of 
their  o^vn.  These  should  be  obtained  from  the  companies 
themselves.  Special  information  may  be  sought  from 
British  consuls. 

British  Honduras. — ^Landing  of  cargo  is  by  lighters, 
but  steamers  from  several  American  ports  run  directly 
to  Belize.  The  general  remarks  are  the  necessity  of 
packing  to  resist  all  hazards  made  under  the  heading 
** Honduras"  apply  also  to  British  Honduras.  Some 
shipments  for  southern  Mexico  are  routed  via  Belize  and 
require  special  care  in  packing.  The  climate  of  British 
Honduras  is  tropical.    There  are  no  official  restrictions 


250  EXPORT  PACKING 

as  to  shipping  marks,  weights,  etc.  Further  inquiries 
may  be  made  of  British  consuls. 

British  Somaliland. — The  duties  assessed  at  Zeyla  and 
all  other  ports  are  ad  valorem  with  few  exceptions.  There 
are  no  official  restrictions  as  to  marks  or  weights,  but 
the  regulations  of  the  steamship  companies  should  be  in- 
vestigated. Packing  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
withstand  extreme  tropical  climate  and  all  hazards  of 
crude  landing  and  interior  transportations,  as  well  as 
transhipments  en  route.  The  interests  of  this  colony 
are  in  the  hands  of  British  consuls. 

British  West  Indies.— The  British  West  Indies  com- 
prise the  Bahama  Islands,  Barbados,  Jamaica,  the  Lee- 
ward Islands,  Trinidad  and  Tobago  and  the  Windward 
Islands.  Separate  mention  is  made  in  this  chapter  of  the 
Bahama  Islands  and  Jamaica.  The  interests  of  these 
islands  in  the  United  States  are  in  charge  of  British  con- 
sular officials. 

The  principal  island  colonies  of  Great  Britain  in  the 
Leeward  group  are  St.  Kitts,  Antigua  and  Dominica, 
which  have  frequent  steamship  connections  with  New 
York  and  other  American  ports.  The  principal  British 
islands  of  the  Windward  group  are  Grenada,  St.  Vincent, 
St.  Lucia,  and  Barbados.  Some  of  these  islands  are 
reached  by  direct  steamers  from  New  York.  Trinidad, 
lying  off  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  and  Tobago,  lying  be- 
tween Trinidad  and  Grenada,  are  likewise  reached  by 
direct  steamers. 

The  climate  of  these  islands  is  subtropical.  While 
certain  ports  are  reached  by  direct  steamers,  others  are 
served  by  transhipping  to  small  coastal  vessels,  which 
involves  the  further  risks  of  repeated  handling.  Again, 
although  certain  ports,  such  as  Port  Castries,  St.  Lucia, 
have  good  harbors  and  are  notably  safe,  in  others  ships 
are  anchored  in  the  open  roadstead.  Packing  should  be 
able  to  withstand  the  hazards  incident  upon  transfer  by 
lighter  from  ship  to  land,  and  adequate  waterproof  pro- 
tection should  always  be  given  in  view  of  the  frequency 
of  exposure  to  rain.    There  are  no  official  restrictions  as 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    251 

to  marks  and  weip:hts  of  packages,  but  certain  steamship 
companies  have  their  own  regulations  which  should  be 
investigated.  No  special  packing  is  called  for  by  cus- 
tom house  regulations. 

Bulgaria. — The  climate  of  Bulgaria  is  temperate. 
Steamers  from  New  York  sometimes  call  at  Bulgarian 
ports.  Landing  of  cargo  is  usually  by  lighter.  Packing 
should  be  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand  interior  trans- 
portation. Merchandise  dutiable  at  the  rate  of  10  levs 
or  less  per  100  kilos  is,  with  few  exceptions,  dutiable  on 
the  basis  of  gross  weight.  Duty  is  assessed  on  the  basis 
of  net  weight  on  merchandise  subject  to  higher  rates  of 
duty.  In  view  of  the  prevailing  conditions  at  the  present 
time  the  consular  regulations  and  those  of  the  steamship 
companies  should  be  investigated  and  followed. 

Canary  Islands.— Climate  is  tropical.  As  there  are 
rarely  direct  sailings  from  New  York,  transhipments 
must  usually  be  expected.  Cargo  is  landed  by  lighters. 
Customs  regulations  given  under  Spain  apply,  and  any 
special  information  should  be  sought  from  Spanish 
consuls. 

Chile. — Goods  are  generally  landed  at  Chilian  ports 
by  lighters,  and  both  conditions  and  methods  prevailing 
are  severe.  Antofagasta,  especially,  has  the  reputation 
of  being  one  of  the  stormiest  ports  of  the  Pacific  where 
lighterage  is  frequently  interrupted  by  the  violence  of  the 
sea.  Goods  should  be  most  securely  packed  and  pro- 
tected against  the  elements.  The  climate  may  be  de- 
scribed as  temperate  and  interior  transportation  con- 
ditions are  normal.  Some  direct  steamers  from  the 
United  States  call  at  most  of  the  large  ports,  others  only 
at  a  few  ports,  requiring  transhipment. 

Merchandise  subject  to  duty  by  weight  may  be  duti- 
able on  net  ^^eight,  gross  weight,  weight  including  pack- 
ing, or  weight  including  containers.  The  following  defini- 
tions and  rules  are  taken  from  the  general  rules  for  the 
application  of  the  customs  tariff  of  November  25, 1907 : 

**3.  By  *net  weight'  is  understood  the  actual  weight 
of  the  goods,  without  packing,  receptacles,  or  wrappers. 


252  EXPORT  PACKING 

**4.  The  term  *  weight  including  packing'  means  the 
weight  of  the  goods,  together  with  all  packing,  recepta- 
cles, or  cords  contained  in  the  outer  container  except  the 
straw,  shavings,  paper,  sawdust,  or  other  material  used 
for  protecting  the  contents.  This  rule  shall  not  apply  to 
goods  for  which  special  rules  are  provided  in  the  tariff. 

*^5.  *  Weight  including  container'  means  the  weight 
of  the  goods  together  with  immediate  receptacles,  even 
if  no  other  container  were  used  for  their  transportation. 

**6.  ^  Gross  weight*  means  the  weight  of  the  goods 
together  with  all  receptacles  and  packing.  Goods  usually- 
transported  without  packing  or  in  bundles,  as  rails, 
girders,  etc.,  are  included  in  this  section. 

**7.  By  *  ordinary  receptacles'  are  to  be  understood 
earthenware  or  glass  pots,  bottles  or  flasks;  iron,  zinc, 
tin,  copper,  or  lead  drums,  wooden  cases,  cardboard  or 
tinplate  boxes,  and  any  other  containers  of  indispensable 
use.  Receptacles  not  usually  employed  for  the  goods  they 
contain  and  having  a  separate  value  or  use  shall  be  con- 
sidered as  dutiable  merchandise  and  appraised  sep- 
arately. 

**8.  When  goods  dutiable  on  'weight  including  pack- 
ing' are  imported  loose  in  bulk  or  bundles,  or  without 
packing  within  the  outer  container,  the  net  weight  shall 
be  increased  by  10  per  cent.  The  same  additional  weight 
shall  apply  to  the  net  weight  when  articles  are  imported 
in  cases  ('estuches')^,  unless  otherwise  expressly  pro- 
vided in  the  tariff. 

**9.  If  goods  subject  to  distinct  rules  as  to  weight, 
valuation,  or  duty  are  imported  in  the  same  package,  they 
shall  be  weighed  in  the  condition  in  which  presented ;  and 
there  shall  be  added  10  per  cent  in  the  case  of  goods  duti- 
able on  weight  including  packing,  if  imported  without 
packing;  20  per  cent  in  the  case  of  goods  dutiable  on 
gross  weight,  if  contained  in  a  receptacle  or  packing; 
and  30  per  cent  if  not  so  contained  or  packed.  Glass, 
earthen,  and  china  wares,  furniture,  enameled  articles  of 
wrought  iron,  paraffin  lamps,  and  iron  bedsteads  are  ex- 

*Thi9  refers  to  instrument  and  similar  cases,  and  not  to  packing  cases. 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING   253 

cepted,  and  shall  be  liable  to  an  increase  of  80  per  cent 
on  their  net  weight. 

*  *  10.  For  the  purpose  of  assessing  duty  according  to 
gross  weight  on  envelopes  and  writing  paper  imported 
together  in  the  same  package,  the  weight  of  the  package 
shall  be  added  proportionately  to  the  net  weight  of  the 
contents. 

**11.  If  bottles  of  the  kinds  specified  in  tariff  No. 
974  are  imported  in  special  cases  used  for  liquors,  the 
second  portion  of  above  rule  7  shall  apply,  and,  as  stipu- 
lated, the  gross  w^eight  of  the  packing  is  to  be  ascer- 
tained, and  the  outside  packing  case  is  to  be  weighed 
separately,  the  remaining  weight  being  attributed  to  the 
bottles,  whether  in  straw  envelopes  or  not.  In  such  case 
the  package  shall  not  be  subject  to  the  surtaxes  estab- 
lished in  rule  9. 

**12.  If  imported  iron  bedsteads  are  not  packed  in 
cases  or  hampers,  they  shall  be  appraised  according  to 
net  weight,  in  their  corresponding  class,  with  an  addi- 
tional 80  per  cent. 

**13.  When  artificial  flowers  and  neckties  are  im- 
ported packed  otherwise  than  in  cardboad  or  wooden 
boxes,  the  net  weight  shall  be  increased  by  100  per  cent. 

**14.  Cases  ^  for  jewelry,  watches,  and  gold,  silver, 
or  platinum  wares  are  included  in  the  appraisement  of 
such  articles.  Any  extra  cases  are  dutiable  separately 
in  their  corresponding  class. 

If  metal  manufactures  are  imported  in  cases  (*es- 
tuches'),^  the  latter  shall  be  appraised  separately  in 
their  corresponding  class. 

In  marking  packages  for  shipment  a  stencil  should 
be  used ;  the  use  of  a  brush  is  not  permitted.  Packages 
must  show  number,  marks,  gross  weight  in  kilos  with 
words  ** Gross  Kilos''  by  the  side  of  the  numerals,  and  all 
marks  must  not  be  smaller  than  two  and  one-half  inches 
in  height  unless  size  of  package  does  not  admit  of  mark- 
ings of  this  height.  A  variation  in  weight  of  only  one- 
half  of  one  per  cent  is  allowed. 

*This  refers  to  instrument  and  similar  eases,  and  not  to  packing  eases. 


-254  EXPORT  PACKING 

China. — There  are  no  restrictions  as  to  marking  and 
packing  and  the  problem  with  reference  to  China  is  not 
one  dictated  by  government  prescriptions,  although  the 
steamship  companies  have  certain  regulations  which  must 
be  complied  with.  There  are  frequent  sailings  directly 
'  from  United  States  ports  to  the  principal  ports  of  China. 
The  packing  problem  is  essentially  one  that  is  conditioned 
by  climate  and  transportation.  Cargo  is  ordinarily 
lightered  from  steamers  to  wharves,  where  it  often  lies 
for  days  exposed  to  the  elements  before  being  carried 
by  coolies  to  warehouses,  or  ** go-downs''  as  they  are 
called.  It  must  be  remembered  that  China  offers  prac- 
tically every  form  of  meteorological  condition,  from  the 
sixty  degrees  of  frost  in  Manchuria  to  the  malarial 
swamps  of  subtropical  Yunnan.  In  the  northern  sections 
the  winters  are  severe,  the  rivers  are  frozen  for  months 
and  a  large  part  of  the  coast  line  is  ice-bound.  In  south 
China  subtropical  conditions  prevail  modified,  however, 
to  an  important  extent  by  varying  degrees  of  altitude. 

Interior  transportation,  the  many  transhipments  and 
other  hazards  call  for  the  most  carefully  considered  pack- 
ing, when  especially  requested  by  consignees.  However, 
the  great  bulk  of  Chinese  imports  is  received  by  the  large 
distributors  in  the  chief  ports  of  entry  and  is  by  them  re- 
packed as  interior  demands  and  conditions  make  neces- 
sary. Practically  all  goods  imported  into  China  are  at 
one  time  or  another  transported  by  coolie,  pack  mule, 
cart,  wheelbarrow  or  donkey.  The  average  load  for  one 
coolie  is  100  pounds,  transported  in  two  packages  of  50 
pounds  each,  on  the  end  of  a  bamboo  pole ;  and  where  the 
load  is  carried  by  two  coolies  the  weight  can  be  160 
pounds,  this  likewise  being  transported  on  a  long  pole, 
each  end  carried  by  a  coolie.  Heavier  loads  require  four 
or  more  coolies.  Many  of  the  small  pack  animals  em- 
ployed, particularly  in  the  mountainous  sections,  cannot 
carry  over  one  picul,  133  pounds. 

Colombia. — Goods  may  be  landed  directly  on  the 
wharves  of  certain  Colombian  ports  or  they  may  be 
lightered  from  steamers  which  ply  regularly  from  the 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    255 

United  States.  However,  goods  shipped  to  Colombia 
must  be  most  thoroughly  protected  against  every  possible 
hazard,  as  the  conditions  of  interior  transportation  and 
those  of  the  climate  are  most  severe.  The  climate  of  the 
coast  cities  is  tropical,  but  becomes  temperate  in  the 
towns  high  up  among  the  mountains.  Colombia  offers 
almost  every  conceivable  difficulty  from  the  standpoint 
of  transportation,  which  may  be  effected  by  train,  steam- 
boat, mules,  oxen  and  men,  and  frequently  the  packages 
will  be  exposed  for  hours  to  tropical  rains,  succeeded  by 
intense  heat.  There  is  little,  if  any,  modem  freight  han- 
dling equipment  at  terminals  and  hand  labor  is  depended 
upon  entirely.  Packing  for  Colombia  should  be  designed 
after  the  most  thorough  investigation  and  study  of  the 
conditions  to  which  the  shipment  will  be  subjected,  and 
the  geographical  location  of  city  of  destination. 

Each  package  should  be  marked  and  numbered  dis- 
tinctly, and  it  is  advisable  to  mark  the  weight  on  each 
package,  though  this  is  not  required  by  law.  The  marking 
may  be  done  with  either  stencil  or  brush. 

Duty  is  levied  on  the  basis  of  gross  weight.  If  mer- 
chandise subject  to  different  rates  of  duty  is  packed  in 
the  same  container,  the  gross  and  net  weight  of  each  kind 
of  merchandise  must  be  separately  indicated,  or  the  en- 
tire package  is  subject  to  duty  at  the  rate  payable  by  the 
highest  taxed  article  included  in  it. 

Whereas  different  kinds  of  goods  may  be  packed  in 
one  package  this  is  not  good  practice,  but  when  goods 
bearing  different  duty  classifications  are  packed  together 
the  weight  of  the  container  or  packing  is  divided  pro- 
portionately in  determininig  duties.  When  a  container 
is  dutiable  at  a  rate  higher  than  the  article  contained 
therein,  the  container  must  be  separately  declared.  On 
the  contrary,  when  the  container  carries  a  lower  duty 
than  the  contents  the  entire  package  bears  the  higher 
duty. 

A  recent  British  official  publication  states  in  part  that 
**many  important  firms  dealing  with  Colombia  are  of 
the  opinion  that  packing  is  perhaps  more  important  than 


256  EXPORT  PACKING 

cheap  prices.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  once  a  Colom- 
bian firm  gets  hold  of  a  foreign  firm  that  will  take  the 
trouble  to  follow  out  carefully  packing  instructions,  it 
will  continue  to  place  orders  although  cheaper  prices  may 
be  offered  from  another  quarter.  The  Colombian  cus- 
toms tariffs  are  based  on  a  fixed  rate  per  article  per  kilo 
of  gross  weight.  Owing  to  the  inadequate  internal  com- 
munications of  the  country,  any  merchandise  brought 
into  the  interior  must  undergo  very  severe  handling  and 
be  subjected  to  many  changes  from  railway  to  steamer, 
and  from  steamer  to  railway.  It  is  therefore  of  the  ut- 
most importance  that  goods  imported  into  Colombia 
should  be  packed  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  be  able  to 
withstand  the  very  rough  journey  inland,  and  at  the  same 
time  that  the  packing  shall  be  sufficiently  light  to  avoid 
excessive  customs  duties.  Bales  of  goods,  etc.,  should, 
if  possible,  not  exceed  90  kilos,  nor  should  they  weigh 
less  than  70  kilos.''  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that 
the  best  practice  prescribes  packages  weighing  not  more 
than  120  pounds  (preferably,  110  pounds)  and  measuring 
not  over  30  to  36  inches  in  length  where  muleback  trans- 
portation is  involved.  Mule  drivers  always  select  the 
small  and  convenient  packages  for  prompt  despatch,  leav- 
ing heavy  pieces  to  wait  sometimes  for  weeks. 

A  steamship  service  has  been  inaugurated  to  Buena- 
ventura on  the  west  coast  of  Colombia,  thus  eliminating 
transhipment  at  Panama.  It  should,  however,  be*  re- 
membered that  goods  consigned  inland  from  this  port  are 
carried  in  canoes  or  on  mule  pack  and  that  packages 
must,  therefore,  be  small  and  should  not  in  any  event 
exceed  85  kilos  each  net  weight. 

A  special  agent  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domes- 
tic Commerce  lists  as  follows  the  wanderings  of  mer- 
chandise from  the  coast  to  Bogota,  the  capital  of  Co- 
lombia : 

*  *  It  may  be  well  to  enumerate  the  necessary  transfers 
of  shipments  on  their  way  from  the  coast  to  Bogota,  as 
follows :  From  steamer  at  Puerto  Colombia  to  train, 
which  takes  the  merchandise  to  Barranquilla ;  at  Barran- 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    257 

quilla  from  train  to  custom-house;  from  custom-house 
to  the  boats  of  the  lower  Magdalena  River;  from  the 
lower  Magdalena  River  boats  at  La  Dorado  to  train, 
which  takes  the  goods  to  Beltran.  At  Beltran  the  mer- 
chandise is  unloaded  from  the  train  to  be  put  aboard 
the  steamers  of  the  upper  Magdalena  River,  which  pro- 
ceed to  Girardot,  where  the  goods  are  unloaded,  and 
placed  on  train.  This  train  proceeds  as  far  as  Facatativa, 
where  transfer  is  made  from  the  yard-gauge  railroad  to 
the  meter-gauge  railroad  of  the  plateau,  which  finally 
lands  the  goods  in  Bogota.  All  these  conditions  make 
careful  packing  indispensable.  All  goods  and  machinery 
should  be  packed  in  waterproofing  because  of  the  exces- 
sive humidity,  the  cases  should  be  of  medium  size  wher- 
ever possible,  and  full  attention  must  be  paid  to  Colom- 
bian customs  regulations.'* 

Costa  Rica.— At  Port  Limon,  on  the  Caribbean  side, 
terminal  facilities  are  good,  while  at  Puntarenas,  the  port 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  cargo  is  taken  off  ships  on  lighters. 
There  are  direct  steamship  services  from  the  United 
States  to  both  ports.  Packing  should  be  able  to  with- 
stand hard  treatment.  The  climate  at  sea  level  is  trop- 
ical, but  in  the  high  altitudes  is  temperate  and  agreeable. 
The  rail  connections  between  the  principal  cities  are 
good. 

Under  the  Costa  Rican  tariff  duty  is  levied  on  the 
gross  weight.  If  goods  subject  to  different  rates  of  duty 
are  packed  in  the  same  container  the  net  weight  of  each, 
kind  of  merchandise  should  be  indicated,  so  that  each  sep- 
arate class  of  merchandise  can  bear  a  proportionate  share 
of  the  weight  of  the  packing.  If  this  information  is  not 
furnished  the  entire  package  is  subject  to  duty  at  the 
rate  payable  by  the  highest  taxed  article  included  in  it. 

Packages  may  be  marked  with  either  stencil  or  brush, 
and  weights  need  not  be  shown  on  the  packages. 

Cuba.— At  nearly  every  Cuban  port  goods  are  light- 
ered ashore.  Direct  steamers  from  the  United  States 
carry  freight  to  Havana,  Santiago  and  some  other  ports 
of  the  island.    The  receiving  of  the  goods  on  shore,  while 


258  EXPORT  PACKING 

not  aided  by  modem  dock  methods,  is  still  accomplished 
well  and  the  storage  is  efficient  in  its  protection.  There 
is  considerable  coastwise  traffic  by  small  steamers  and 
sailing  vessels.  Land  transportation  is  in  the  main  sat- 
isfactory, including  modern  railway  systems.  The  climate 
is  subtropical. 

The  Cuban  tariff  provides  that  articles  are  dutiable 
on  either  gross  weight,  actual  net  weight,  legal  net  weight, 
or  ad  valorem,  and  the  tariff  indicates  under  which  of 
these  classes  the  duty  on  goods  will  be  assessed.  Legal 
net'  weight  is  determined  in  accordance  with  the  schedule 
of  tare  allowances  annexed  to  the  tariff.  In  the  case  of 
goods  dutiable  on  gross  weight  and  subject  to  a  specific 
tare  allowance  for  containers,  this  allowance  is  made  only 
on  articles  packed  in  boxes,  barrels,  crates,  and  other  reg- 
ular receptacles.  However,  for  some  articles  a  tare  al- 
lowance is  specified  for  lighter  forms  of  packing,  such 
as  bales.  Packages  may  be  marked  with  either  stencil  or 
brush.    Weights  need  not  be  marked  on  the  packages. 

Denmark. — Climate  and  transportation  conditions  are 
comparable  to  those  of  the  northern  United  States.  Goods 
are  landed  at  modem  wharves.  There  are  no  restrictions 
as  to  marks,  weights,  etc.  Duty  is  assessed  on  the  basis  of 
net  weight,  which  includes  the  weight  of  individual  re- 
ceptacles in  which  goods  are  sold  at  retail,  as  well  as 
paper  or  cloth  wrappers.  The  steamship  companies  have 
certain  regulations  which  should  be  investigated  and  fol- 
lowed. 

Dominican  Republic. — Terminal  facilities  are  poor 
and  goods  are  landed  in  lighters.  There  are  direct 
steamers  from  New  York  to  a  few  ports;  transhipment 
is  necessary  to  reach  others.  Interior  communications 
are  primitive.  The  climate  is  subtropical  with  much  rain. 
Goods  should  be  packed  to  withstand  the  hazards  of  the 
elements  and  hard  handling,  with  specially  good  water- 
proof protection  and  every  device  against  pilfering. 
Packages  should  not  be  inconveniently  large. 

Duties  are  assessed  either  on  the  basis  of  gross  or  net 
weight.     The  following  regulations  and  definitions  are 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    259 

taken  from  the  Dominican  customs  tariff  in  force  Jan- 
uary 1,1910: 

**Rule  29.  No  duty  shall  be  collected  on  outer  cover- 
ings containing  articles  dutiable  on  net  weight,  by  the 
piece,  or  free  of  duty,  if  such  coverings  are  in  general 
use  for  packing  at  the  time  when  imported,  except  water- 
tight coopers'  wares  containing  any  of  the  above  mer- 
chandise, which  shall  be  dutiable.  Coverings  of  mer- 
chandise (outer  or  inner),  of  material  or  form  designed 
to  evade  duties,  or  which  may  be  used  for  other  purposes 
than  common  packing,  or  of  unusual  form,  shall  be  sub- 
ject to  duty  under  paragraphs  of  the  tariff  to  which  they 
correspond  by  classification.  Inner  packing  containing 
merchandise  paying  duty  on  the  net  weight  shall  in  no 
case  pay  a  lower  rate  of  duty  than  their  contents.  Cases 
of  jewelry,  used  as  immediate  containers  therefor,  shall 
be  dutiable  under  their  respective  paragraphs. 

**Rule  30. — Whenever  merchandise  shall  be  dutiable 
on  gross  weight,  the  dutiable  weight  of  such  merchandise 
shall  include  the  weight  of  all  covers,  receptacles,  wrap- 
pers, packages,  and  packing  of  every  description,  whether 
outer,  inner  or  immediate,  without  any  allowance  for  tare. 

**Rule  31.  In  all  instances  where  merchandise  shall 
be  dutiable  on  net  weight,  the  dutiable  weight  of  such 
merchandise  shall  not  include  any  common  outer  cover, 
receptacle,  package,  wrapper  or  packing,  but  shall  include 
all  inner  or  immediate  receptacles,  including  cards  and 
cartons,  not  subject  to  a  higher  rate  of  duty.  Loose 
straw,  shavings,  excelsior,  paper,  sawdust,  or  other  sim- 
ilar materials,  interposed  between  the  outer  receptacle 
and  immediate  container  of  the  merchandise  to  steady 
and  protect  the  same,  shall  not  be  considered  as  part  of 
the  immediate  container. 

**Rule  32.  When  goods  dutiable  on  net  weight,  by 
the  piece,  ad  valorem,  or  free  of  duty,  are  imported  in 
the  same  container  with  others  dutiable  on  gross  weight, 
the  former  shall  be  assessed  on  their'  net  weight,  as  de- 
fined in  rule  31,  by  the  piece,  ad  valorem,  or  shall  be  free 
of  duty,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  the  latter  shall  be  duti- 


260  EXPORT  PACKING 

able  on  the  net  weight,  as  defined  in  Rule  31,  with  aji 
addition  of  25  per  cent  thereof. 

**Riile  33.  All  the  provisions  of  Rules  30,  31,  and  32 
regarding  gross  and  net  weight  shall  be  applicable  to 
goods  subject  to  compound  duties,  when  the  gross  or  net 
weight  forms  part  of  the  compound  duty.'' 

Weights  need  not  be  marked  on  the  packages.  Pack- 
ages may  be  marked  with  a  stencil  or  brush. 

Dutch  East  Indies. — Goods  should  be  packed  to  with- 
stand discharge  into  lighters  and  hazards  of  an  excessive- 
ly tropical  climate.  Consular  regulations  are  those  of 
Holland.  There  are  regular,  direct  steamship  services 
from  the  United  States  to  some  of  the  principal  ports. 
The  tariff  assesses  both  ad  valorem  and  specific  duties 
based  on  weight.  The  regulations  of  the  steamship  com- 
panies should  be  investigated.  No  special  packing  con- 
siderations are  otherwise  called  for,  unless  especially  in- 
structed by  customers.  General  information  about  these 
colonies  may  be  had  from  consuls  of  Holland. 

Dutch  Guiana. — Shipments  must  be  prepared  to  meet 
every  hazard  of  a  tropical  climate,  landing  and  transpor- 
tation. There  are  direct  steamers  from  New  York  to 
Paramaribo.  There  are  no  restrictions  as  to  shipping 
marks,  etc.,  except  such  as  are  prescribed  by  the  different 
steamship  companies.  Most  articles  dutiable  by  weight 
are  dutiable  either  by  gross  or  net  weight  as  the  importer 
may  elect.  Consignees'  instructions  with  respect  to  pack- 
ing should  therefore  be  carefully  followed.  Consuls  of 
Holland  may  be  asked  for  general  information  about 
Dutch  Guiana. 

Dutch  West  Indies.— The  Dutch  colonies  in  the  West 
Indies  comprise  the  islands  of  Curagao,  Bonaire,  Aruba, 
Saba,  St.  Eustatius  and  half  of  the  island  of  St.  Martin. 
The  interests  of  these  islands  are  in  the  care  of  consular 
officials  of  the  Netherlands,  from  whom  any  special  in- 
formation should  be  sought. 

The  climate  of  these  islands  is  subtropical  and  heavy 
rains  are  prevalent.  Willemstadt,  the  port  of  Curasao, 
is  reached  by  several  direct  steamship  lines  from  New 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    261 

York  and  one  from  New  Orleans.  The  islands  of  Saba 
and  St.  Eustatius,  in  the  Leeward  Islands,  are  reached 
by  transhipment  via  St.  Kitts,  while  St.  Martin  is 
reached  at  irregular  intervals  by  direct  steamers  from 
New  York.  Packing  should  be  prepared  with  these  con- 
ditions in  view. 

Ecuador. — Goods  for  Ecuador  should  be  protected  in 
every  way  against  bad  handling  and  climatic  conditions, 
ranging  from  torrid  tropical  on  the  coast  to  cool  in  the 
mountains  at  elevations  of  thousands  of  feet.  Guayaquil 
is  sometimes  reached  by  direct^  steamers,  but  tranship- 
ment is  common.  All  forms  of  transportation  and  ter- 
minal facilities  are  most  primitive.  Cargo  is  lightered 
ashore  from  arriving  steamers  and  is  handled  many  times 
over  by  hand  before  reaching  destination.  Cases  should 
not,  if  avoidable,  exceed  112  pounds  in  weight,  to  facili- 
tate handling  and  interior  transportation. 

Customs  duties  are  assessed  either  on  the  basis  of 
gross  or  net  weight,  according  to  the  kind  of  merchandise. 
Although  goods  subject  to  different  rates  of  duty  may  be 
packed  in  the  same  container  without  being  subjected  to 
any  official  penalty,  consuls  of  Ecuador  require,  when  this 
practice  is  followed,  that  the  shipper  state  in  the  consular 
invoice  the  net  weight  in  kilos  of  each  kind  of  merchan- 
dise so  included,  as  well  as  the  gross  weight  of  the  entire 
package. 

Packages  may  be  marked  with  a  stencil  or  brush  and 
should  show  gross  weight  in  kilos. 

Egypt. — The  climate  of  Egypt  is  hot  and  dry.  Alex- 
andria is  reached  by  direct  steamers  from  New  York,  but 
not  infrequently  transhipment  is  necessary.  Cargo  is 
sometimes  landed  directly  on  the  quays  in  Alexandria, 
sometimes  by  lighter.  There  are  excellent  railways  and 
the  Nile  boat  services  are  satisfactory.  Apart  from 
special  instructions  which  may  be  received,  no  special 
attention  is  required  so  far  as  size  and  weight  of  pack- 
ages are  concerned,  although  it  should  be  noted  that  un- 
skilled native  hand  labor  is  utilized  and  some  difficulties 
are  experienced  with  very  heavy  pieces. 


262  EXPORT  PACKING 

There  are  no  official  restrictions  with  regard  to  mark- 
ing, but  certain  of  the  steamship  companies  require  that 
the  gross  weight  in  pounds  must  be  marked  on  packages 
and  these  and  other  regulations  should  be  carefully  in- 
vestigated. The  interests  of  Egypt  in  the  United  States 
are  in  charge  of  British  consular  officials.  The  majority 
of  duties  levied  by  the  Egyptian  tariff  are  ad  valorem  and 
call  for  no  remark. 

Finland. — Articles  specifically  named  in  the  tariff  are 
dutiable  on  the  basis  of  gross  weight.  All  other  articles 
pay  duty  according  to  the  table  of  tare  allowances  an- 
nexed to  the  tariff,  or  when  no  tare  has  been  established, 
on  the  basis  of  net  weight.  A  new  tariff  has  been  in 
force  in  Finland  since  April  1,  1919,  under  which  certain 
specified  machinery  and  other  articles  are  subject  to  an 
ad  valorem  duty.  In  view  of  the  prevailing  conditions  at 
the  present  time  the  consular  regulations  and  those  of  the 
steamship  companies  should  be  investigated  and  fol- 
lowed. The  climate  of  Finland  may  be  described  as  simi- 
lar to  that  of  eastern  Canada.  Helsingfors  is  an  up-to- 
date  port,  with  modern  facilities,  reached  by  direct  sail- 
ings from  New  York,  as  are  from  time  to  time  other  Fin- 
nish ports.  Packing  requires  no  unusual  attention,  ex- 
cept as  specific  instructions  may  be  given  by  importers. 

France. — Transportation  and  climatic  conditions  in 
France  are  comparable  to  those  in  the  United  States. 
Landing  facilities  at  the  ports  are  of  the  best.  Goods 
must  be  packed  for  ocean  shipment  and  this  means  good, 
strong,  well-protected,  cases  or  crates.  Before  packinsr 
or  making  shipment  the  consul  general  of  France  should 
be  consulted  in  reference  to  the  latest  customs  rulings 
obtaining.  Many  changes  have  been  made  in  the  past 
year  and  it  is  impossible  to  foretell  further  changes  in 
view  of  international  trade  conditions.  The  various  ship- 
ping companies  likewise  have  certain  regulations  which 
should  be  investigated  and  followed. 

French  regulations  with  respect  to  the  importation  of 
pharmaceutical  preparations,  jewelry  and  other  articles 
of  gold,  silver,  or  platinum  are  very  strict  and  should 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    263 

be  carefully  investigated.  Informatioi:!  with  respect  to 
these  and  other  regulations  may  be  obtained  from  French 
consular  officials  or  from  the  offices  of  the  French  High 
Commission  in  New  York  City. 

French  Guiana. — Freight,  to  reach  this  colony,  must 
be  transhipped  en  route.  The  climate  is  tropical,  land- 
ing facilities  and  interior  transportation  conditions  prim- 
itive. Packing  should  be  thoroughly  waterproof,  sturdy, 
but  preferably  in  cases  of  not  excessive  weight.  The  con- 
sular regulations  governing  shipments  to  that  country 
are  identical  with  those  governing  shipments  to  France. 
French  consuls  are  sources  of  information  regarding  the 
colony. 

French  Indo-China. — The  consular  regulations  gov- 
erning shipments  to  French  Indo-China  are  identical  with 
those  governing  shipments  to  France.  Packing  must  be 
prepared  to  meet  all  climatic  and  shipping  hazards.  The 
colony  lies  in  the  tropics  and  freight  is  usually  tran- 
shipped once,  or  oftener,  en  route.  General  conditions 
may  be  likened  to  those  described  under  China.  Consuls 
of  France  may  be  asked  as  to  conditions  in  the  colony. 

French  Somaliland. — The  port  of  Djibouti  is  practi- 
cally a  free  port,  largely  notable  as  the  port  of  entry 
for  Abyssinia.  Goods  must  be  packed  to  withstand  the 
tropical  climate  and  all  hazards  of  transportation.  In 
the  absence  of  direct  steamship  lines,  freight  has  to  be 
transhipped  en  route  and  traverses  the  torrid  waters  of 
the  Ped  Sea.  There  are  no  official  restrictions  as  to 
marks  or  weights,  but  the  regulations  of  the  steamship 
companies  should  be  investigated.  The  interests  of  the 
colony  are  in  the  hands  of  consuls  of  France. 

French  West  Indies. — The  French  colonies  in  the 
West  Indies  consist  of  the  island  of  Guadeloupe,  the 
smaller  islands  of  Les  Saintes,  Desirade,  St.  Barthelemy, 
the  Marie  Galante  Islands  and  half  of  the  island  of  St. 
Martin,  all  dependencies  of  Guadeloupe  and  the  island 
of  Martinique.  The  interests  of  these  islands  are  cared 
for  by  French  consular  officials,  to  whom  special  inquiries 
may  be  addressed. 


264  EXPORT  PACKING 

The  climate  of  all  these  islands  is  subtropical,  and 
they  are  subject  to  the  heavy  rains  characteristic  of  the 
West  Indies.  Guadeloupe  and  Martinique  are  served  by 
direct  steamers  from  New  York  and  other  American 
ports,  the  smaller  islands  being  ordinarily  reached  by 
transhipment  to  smaller  coasting  vessels.  Packing 
should  be  able  to  withstand  the  hazards  incident  upon 
transhipment  and  rough  handling,  and  adequate  water- 
proof protection  should  always  be  given.  French  con- 
sular regulations  apply  to  shipments  to  the  French  West 
Indies.  The  regulations  of  the  steamship  companies 
should  be  investigated. 

Germany. — Climatic  conditions  in  Germany  are  simi- 
lar to  those  obtaining  in  the  northern  United  States  and 
this  is  likewise  normally  true  of  excellent  railway  trans- 
portation and  most  modern  port  conditions.  There  are 
numerous  direct  steamer  connections.  Customs  require- 
ments should  in  each  instance  be  investigated  until  con- 
ditions are  more  clearly  defined  and  stabilized  than  at 
present.  Under  the  former  German  tariff,  articles  on 
which  the  rate  of  duty  did  not  exceed  6  marks  per  100 
kilos  were  dutiable  on  the  basis  of  gross  weight;  while 
on  articles  subject  to  a  higher  rate  of  duty  a  tare  allow- 
ance based  upon  a  fixed  schedule  was  provided. 

Greece. — Goods  shipped  to  Greece  must  be  well  packed 
to  withstand  hazards  of  maritime  and  land  transporta- 
tion. The  climate  does  not  offer  difficulties  for  the 
packer,  being  similar  to  that  of  our  own  South  Atlantic 
States.  Duty  is  levied,  with  a  few  exceptions,  on  legal 
net  weight.  There  are  no  government  restrictions  as  to 
marks,  weights,  etc.,  but  the  different  steamship  com- 
panies have  certain  regulations  of  their  own  which  should 
be  followed. 

There  are  steamship  lines  direct  from  New  York  to 
Piraeus  (the  port  of  Athens)  Patras  and  Salonica,  but  a 
large  part  of  the  cargo  for  other  ports  of  Greece  is  tran- 
shipped there  or  elsewhere  en  route  and  these  tran- 
shipments must  be  taken  into  account  in  preparing  suit- 
able packing.    Cargo  is  taken  ashore  in  lighters. 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    265 

Guatemala. — Climatic  conditions  in  Guatemala  vary 
from  tropical  to  temperate.  Direct  steamers  from  the 
United  States  reach  both  Caribbean  and  Pacific  ports. 
Goods  must  be  packed  well  to  withstand  transhipment  by 
lighters  and  very  primitive  methods  of  interior  transpor- 
tation in  the  many  districts  not  reached  by  the  single 
railway.    Pack  mules  are  in  common  use. 

Merchandise  is  dutiable  either  on  the  basis  of  net 
weight  or  on  the  basis  of  weight  including  packing  with 
the  exception  of  outer  containers,  or  on  the  basis  of  gross 
weight,  as  may  be  provided  by  the  customs  tariff.  If 
merchandise  which  is  dutiable  on  weight  including  pack- 
ing is  imported  loose  in  an  outer  container,  the  weight 
of  the  outer  container  is  not  included  in  the  weight  sub- 
ject to  duty.  If  merchandise  which  is  dutiable  on  the 
basis  of  weight  including  packing  is  imported  in  the  same 
container  with  merchandise  dutiable  on  the  basis  of  gross 
weight,  the  merchandise  dutiable  on  gross  weight  is  sub- 
ject to  duty  on  the  basis  of  weight  including  packing,  with 
the  addition  of  one-fourth  the  duty  so  levied  in  compen- 
sation for  the  weight  of  the  container.  With  respect 
to  wrapping,  only  oil  cloth  and  tarpaulin  are  considered 
a  part  of  the  packing  and  cloth  wrapping  must  be  de- 
clared for  duty.  The  customs  authorities  at  Guatemala 
impose  a  fine  on  packages  containing  merchandise  subject 
to  different  rates  of  duty.  It  is,  therefore,  desirable  that 
the  exporter  obtain  complete  packing  instructions  from 
the  importer  in  Guatemala. 

The  exporter  should  consider  carefully  the  nature  of 
the  goods  and  whether  the  duty  is  based  on  gross  or  net 
weight ;  a  custom  tariff  of  Guatemala  should  be  at  hand 
for  reference.  It  is  not  enough  that  the  goods  be  well 
and  carefully  packed ;  the  packing  must  be  done  with  ref- 
erence to  the  tariff  situation. 

Packages  may  be  marked  with  stencil  or  brush. 
Weights  need  not  appear  on  packages,  but  each  package 
must  be  numbered.  A  different  number  must  be  put  on 
each  package  in  the  same  shipment  and  these  numbers 
must  correspond  with  those  given  in  the  consular  invoice. 


266  EXPORT  PACKING 

The  Guatemalan  government  imposes  strict  regula- 
tions with  respect  to  the  importation  of  telephone  and  tel- 
egraph apparatus  and  pharmaceutical  preparations. 
These  can  be  obtained  from  the  consul  general  of  that 
country  in  New  York  City. 

Haiti. — The  same  general  statements  made  with  refer- 
ence to  the  Dominican  Eepublic  apply  with  equal  force  to 
Haiti  as  to  climate,  interior  transportation  and  packing 
protection.  Goods  destined  for  this  country  should  be 
well  and  securely  packed  to  resist  every  imaginable  haz- 
ard. There  are  direct  steamers  from  New  York  to  the 
principal  ports  of  the  republic  but  lighterage  and  wharf- 
age facilities  are  bad. 

Merchandise  on  which,  under  the  Haitian  tariff,  duties 
are  assessed  on  the  basis  of  weight,  is  dutiable  on  net 
weight. 

Packages  may  be  marked  with  stencil  or  brush  and 
must  bear  consecutive  numbers,  the  net  weight  in  pounds, 
the  countermarks,  and  the  name  or  initials  of  consignees. 

Hawaiian  Islands. — Honolulu  is  reached  by  direct 
steamers  from  San  Francisco.  Freight  is  landed  directly 
on  the  wharves,  as  a  rule,  and  general  facilities  are  good. 
There  are  no  restrictions  as  to  marks  except  those  pre- 
scribed by  the  different  steamship  companies.  The  cli- 
mate is  subtropical.  Information  relating  to  the  islands 
may  be  obtained  from  the  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs, 
Washington,  D.  C,  for  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  islands  are  not  '^foreign*'  but  ar^a  part  of  the  United 
States,  and  no  consideration  of  customs  regulations  is 
called  for,  so  far  as  they  may  affect  packing. 

Holland. — Transportation  and  climatic  conditions  are 
similar  to  those  obtaining  in  the  United  States.  Fre- 
quent direct  steamers  reach  Rotterdam  and  Amsterdam, 
landing  facilities  as  well  as  railway  and  canal  services 
are  most  modern.  There  are  no  restrictions  as  to  weight 
and  marks  except  such  as  are  prescribed  by  the  various 
shipping  companies.  Nearly  all  duties  assessed  by  the 
Dutch  tariff  are  low  and  goods  which  pay  duty  on  the 
basis  of  weight  are  dutiable  on  their  legal  net  weight. 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING  267 

Honduras. — Goods  must  be  packed  to  resist  severe 
conditions  of  transhipment,  landing  and  most  primitive 
interior  transportation.  The  climate  is  chiefly  tropical, 
varying  to  temperate  according  to  elevation  above  the 
sea. 

All  goods  are  dutiable  on  the  basis  of  gross  weight; 
goods  subject  to  different  rates  of  duty  may  be  packed 
in  one  container  without  penalty. 

There  are  direct  steamers  from  New  York  and  New 
Orleans  to  some  of  the  ports  in  the  Caribbean  coast. 
Goods  shipped  to  Tegucigalpa  and  the  interior  of  Hon- 
duras come  either  direct  by  steamer  from  San  Francisco 
to  Amapala,  or  from  New  York  via  Panama  by  tran- 
shipment to  Amapala.  Here  they  are  reshipped  to  San 
Lorenzo,  a  small  port  near  Amapala,  and  thence  to  the 
interior  by  ox-cart.  It  has  heretofore  required  from  8 
to  12  days  for  the  freight  to  reach  the  capital  after  leav- 
ing the  coast,  but  it  is  understood  that  better  service  is 
lately  available.  Cargo  is  often  handled  in  an  extremely 
rough  manner,  especially  on  the  Pacific  side,  although 
American  companies  operating  to  the  Caribbean  ports 
offer  fairly  good  facilities. 

After  the  goods  are  landed  comes  the  long  jolting  in 
the  ox-cart  for  many  days,  and  then  a  journey  on  mule- 
back  to  reach  the  many  points  where  there  are  no  roads, 
which  will  discover  every  possible  weakness  and  com- 
plete damage  that  was  started  in  earlier  stages  of  the 
voyage.  Furthermore,  the  rainy  season  lasts  from  five 
to  six  months,  and  during  this  time  it  rains  hard  and  fre- 
quently.   The  best  of  waterproof  protection  is  essential. 

The  statements  in  reference  to  freight  also  apply  to 
parcel  post  shipments,  the  mail  being  transported  on 
muleback  from  the  north  and  south  coasts,  a  trip  of  from 
three  to  six  days.  Eivers  have  to  be  crossed,  rains  are 
frequent,  and  the  ropes  lashing  the  packages  to  the  mules 
have  to  be  drawoi  tight.  It  takes  from  six  weeks  to  sev- 
eral months  before  an  importer  in  the  interior  of  Hon- 
duras gets  his  goods,  and  it  is  vitally  important  that  these 
goods  arrive  in  good  shape  after  this  long  lapse  of  time. 


268  EXPORT  PACKING 

Goods  to  be  consumed  in  the  port  towns  may  be  packed 
in  large  cases,  preferably  not  to  exceed  220  pounds  in 
weight,  but  goods  for  the  interior  must  be  packed  to 
meet  the  transportation  facilities.  If  a  package  weighs 
150  pounds  a  mule  can  carry  only  one,  and  this  must  be 
placed  on  the  backbone  of  the  animal.  Two  packages  of 
125  pounds  each,  however,  -can  be  strapped  one  on  each 
side. 

Packing  for  Honduras  is  a  very  intricate  problem 
in  view  of  the  assessment  of  duties  on  the  gross  weight 
of  the  packed  merchandise,  indicating  the  desirability  of 
the  lightest  possible  containers,  while  rough  treatment  in 
transit  and  the  crudest  of  handling  and  transportation 
facilities  demand  amply  stout  and  waterproof  protection. 

India. — Shipments  to  India  must  be  prepared  to  meet 
the  extreme  hazards  of  a  most  tropical  climate  in  addi- 
tion to  passing  en  route  through  the  hottest  waters  of 
the  globe.  Direct  steamers  from  New  York  to  Pacific 
coast  ports  may  always  be  found  for  shipping  to  Bom- 
bay and  Calcutta,  sometimes  for  other  Indian  ports  also. 
There  are  piers  and  quays  at  some  of  the  principal  ports, 
but  even  in  such  ports  cargo  is  usually  landed  by  lighters 
and  handled  by  unskilled  and  careless  native  labor.  Eail- 
ways  connect  the  leading  cities  of  India,  but  points  off 
the  railway  lines  are  reached  by  bullock-cart.  However, 
this  need  give  the  ordinary  shipper  no  concern,  since 
repacking  for  the  remote  interior,  except  in  the  case  of 
special  machinery,  is  always  undertaken  by  the  large  im- 
porters in  the  principal  cities. 

A  large  number  of  articles  imported  into  India  are 
dutiable  at  the  rate  of  7%  per  cent  ad  valorem,  and  the 
Indian  tariff  likewise  provides  a  large  free  list.  Certain 
of  the  steamship  companies  require  that  the  gross  weight 
in  pounds  be  marked  on  packages  destined  to  India  and 
Ceylon,  and  these  and  other  regulations  should  be  care- 
fully investigated. 

Both  India  and  Ceylon  have  Merchandise  Marks  Acts 
which  provide  that  all  goods  made  or  produced  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  British  India,  must 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING   269 

arrive  in  India  with  the  names  or  trade  marks  on  them 
accompanied  by  a  definite  indication  of  the  countries  of 
origin,  which  must  be  shown  in  letters  as  large  01;^  con- 
spicuous as  any  letter  in  the  name  or  trade  mark  and 
in  the  same  language  and  characters  as  the  name  or 
trade  mark. 

The  following  summary  of  the  provisions  of  the  act 
and  suggestions  as  to  procedure  were  compiled  by  a  for- 
mer American  consul  at  Bombay: 

'*It  is  generally  assumed,  under  the  provisions  of  the 
Indian  merchandise-mark  legislation,  that  whenever  the 
English  language  is  used,  either  in  trademarks  or  in  de- 
scriptions of  imported  goods,  the  country  of  origin  is  the 
United  Kingdom.  Otherwise  there  is  intent  to  deceive  and 
violate  the  law,  unless  there  is  a  clear  counter  indication 
that  the  goods  were  manufactured  elsewhere.  There- 
fore, in  the  case  of  goods  manufactured  in  the  United 
States,  the  counter  indication,  *Made  in  the  U.  S.  A.,* 
should  appear  in  clear  letters.  It  is  held  insufficient  to 
mark  simply  *U.  S.  A.'  If  goods  from  the  United 
States  are  marked  with  the  name  of  a  city  which 
might  also  be  the  name  of  a  city  or  place  in  the 
United  Kingdom  or  British  India,  the  name  should  be 
accompanied  by  further  names  to  indicate  that  it  is  in  the 
United  States.  For  instance,  Boston  in  Massachusetts 
should  be  accompanied  by  the  name  *  United  States'  or 
by  the  initials  *U.  S.  A.'  or  by  the  word  *  Massachusetts.' 

**A11  counterfeit  trade-marks  and  all  false  descrip- 
tions of  any  sort  are  strictly  forbidden  in  the  case  of 
goods  imported  into  India.  The  expression  *  trade-mark* 
means  in  India  any  trade-mark,  which,  either  with  or 
without  registration,  is  protected  by  law  in  any  British 
possession  or  foreign  State;  and  the  expression  *  counter- 
feit' means  a  deceptive  resemblance,  which  need  not  be 
exact,  of  one  thing  to  another  thing.  A  false  trade  de- 
scription means  a  trade  description  which  is  untrue  in  a 
material  respect  as  regards  the  goods  to  which  it  is  ap- 
plied. 

**  Piece  goods  in  India,  ordinarily  sold  by  length  or  by 


270  EXPORT  PACKING 

the  piece,  should  have  the  length  in  standard  yards 
stamped  conspicuously  in  English  numerals  on  each 
piece.  Piece  goods  include  woolen  goods  of  all  kinds,  and 
the  following  cotton  goods :  Cambrics,  checks,  spots  and 
stripes,  chudders,  chudder  dhooties,  dhooties,  domestics, 
doorias,  drills,  jaconets,  jeans,  lappets,  lawns,  lenos,  long- 
cloths,  madapollams,  mulls,  muslins,  nainsooks,  printers, 
prints,  sarries,  scarfs  (eklai),  sheetings,  shirtings,  tan- 
jibs,  twills,  T  cloths,  and  Mexicans.  Other  classes  of 
piece  goods  are  not  detained  if  unstamped.  The  same 
applies  to  unstamped  cotton  and  woolen  piece  goods  im- 
ported for  the  personal  use  of  individuals  or  private 
associations,  and  not  for  trade  purposes.  A  trade  de- 
scription of  length  stamped  on  gray,  white,  or  colored 
cotton  piece  goods  is  not  deemed  to  be  false  in  a  mate- 
rial respect,  unless  where  a  single  length  is  stamped,  the 
description  exceeds  actual  length  by  more  than  4  inches 
in  pieces  stamped  as  10  yards  long,  and  18  inches  in  pieces 
stamped  as  above  47  yards  long,  provided  that  the  av- 
erage length  of  the  goods  in  question  does  not  measure 
less  than  the  stamped  length.  Although  no  trade  descrip- 
tion of  width  seems  to  be  necessary,  if  one  appears  it  is 
not  considered  false  if  it  exceeds  the  actual  width  by  one- 
half  inch  in  pieces  stamped  as  40  inches  or  less  in  width, 
or  1  inch  in  pieces  stamped  as  50  inches  or  more  in  width, 
provided  the  average  width  is  not  less  than  the  stamped 
width. 

*^In  cases  where  indication  of  origin  is  required  to  be 
marked,  when  the  English  language  is  used  for  goods 
made  outside  of  the  United  Kingdom,  the  counter  indica- 
tion should  be  adjacent  on  the  same  label,  or  part  of  the 
covering  of  the  goods,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  which  the 
name,  trade-mark,  or  trade  description  is  applied.  It 
should  not  be  on  a  separate  label,  or  otherwise  detachable 
from  the  application  of  the  name,  trade-mark,  or  trade 
description  itself;  and  it  should  be  applied  no  less  in- 
delibly than  the  latter.  It  should  be  repeated  for  all  appli- 
cations of  the  name,  trade-mark,  or  false  trade  descrip- 
tion, except  when  the  latter  are  reproduced  in  such  close 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    271 

proximity  that  one  prominent  counter  indication  will  suf- 
fice to  cover  all.  If  different  languages  or  characters, 
English  or  Indian,  are  used  for  the  names  or  included  in 
the  trade-marks,  the  counter  indication  should  be  re- 
peated in  each  language. 

**  Statements,  descriptions  or  numerals,  on  labels  or 
tickets  applied  to  boxes,  cartons,  parcels,  or  other  pack- 
ages, which  are  manifestly  intended  only  for  the  purpose 
of  identifying  articles  for  the  convenience  of  dealers  and 
shopkeeepers,  and  are  not  specially  intended  to  attract 
the  eye  of  the  purchaser,  are  not  treated  as  trade  de- 
scriptions; such  for  instance,  as  on  bundles  of  hosiery, 
*Hose,  brown  merino,  size  10;'  on  shoes,  *  Enameled 
leather,  men's  No.  6;'  on  hats,  *  Brown  felt,  hard.  No.  7,' 
so  long  as  such  marks  or  descriptions  are  not  on  the 
goods  themselves. 

*  *  Counter  indications  are  required  in  connection  with 
words  in  any  Indian  language,  or  letters  or  numerals  in 
Indian  character,  or  other  marks  or  devices,  as  represen- 
tations of  Indian  deities  or  emblems  which  might  lead 
persons  to  believe  that  the  goods  were  made  or  produced 
in  British  India,  the  same  principle  being  thus  applied 
as  to  goods  made  or  produced  outside  the  United  King- 
dom but  using  the  English  language  in  trade-marks  and 
descriptions. 

**  Samples  or  patterns  of  goods,  which  are  readily  dis- 
tinguishable as  such  and  valueless  in  themselves,  are  not 
subject  to  the  legal  provisions  regarding  marking  of 
origin. 

'  ^  Although  any  formal  registration  of  marks,  names, 
or  initials  is  prohibited  in  Indian  custom  houses,  yet 
goods  are  excluded  if  it  should  be  shown  that  an  attempt 
has  been  made  to  counterfeit  some  established  mark  or 
other  indication  that  is  well  known  to  the  customs  of- 
ficials. There  is  at  present  considerable  agitation  in 
India  for  a  law  requiring  registration  for  trade-marks, 
and  punishment  for  counterfeiting  registered  trade- 
marks ;  and  it  seems  likely  that  there  may  soon  be  one 
to  that  effect.    In  regard  to  dealing  with  various  false 


272  EXPORT  PACKING 

descriptions,  customs  officials  are  instructed  that  there 
should  be  due  consideration  given  to  the  provision  that  a 
trade  description  to  be  false  must  be  *  untrue  in  a  material 
respect. '  When  there  are  indications  that  goods  are  of  a 
certain  standard  composition,  such  as  the  letters  B.  P. 
(British  Pharmacopoeia)  in  the  case  of  drugs,  the  de- 
scription would  be  regarded  as  false  unless  composition 
was  in  accordance  with  the  standard.'* 

More  particular  and  detailed  instructions  as  to  the 
marking  of  merchandise  and  trade  description  may  be  ob- 
tained by  a  study  of  the  Merchandise  Marks  Manual,  a 
book  officially  published  by  the  Superintendent  of  Gov- 
ernment Printing  at  Calcutta,  which  reviews  the  various 
laws  and  regulations,  contains  many  special  rulings  and 
examples  as  to  their  proper  application.  The  advice  and 
instruction  of  local  importers  should,  in  all  cases,  be  fol- 
lowed exactly  since  the  interpretation  of  the  Merchandise 
Marks  Laws,  especially  as  regards  trade  description,  is, 
to  a  large  extent,  dependent  upon  the  individual  judgment 
or  ideas  of  individual  collectors  of  customs  at  various 
ports,  some  of  whom  are  inclined  to  be  liberal  and  some 
not.  Local  firms  which  have  had  considerable  experience 
with  more  or  less  involved  questions  concerning  the 
marking  of  merchandise  and  with  local  rulings  covering 
these  questions,  are,  as  a  general  rule,  able  to  provide 
clearer  instructions  than  those  which  may  be  obtained 
from  the  Merchandise  Marks  Manual. 

Italy. — There  are  no  special  difficulties  with  respect 
to  climate  or  interior  transportation  to  be  observed  in 
preparing  shipments  for  Italy,  but  packing  should  pro- 
vide against  the  danger  of  pilfering  and  be  able  to  with- 
stand the  hazards  of  ocean  transportation.  Direct  steam- 
ers reach  all  principal  ports,  where  landing  facilities  are 
tmusually  good.  Interior  railway  services  are  modem 
and  satisfactory.  The  climate  may  be  likened  to  that  of 
California. 

With  few  exceptions  duty  is  assessed,  on  articles  sub- 
ject to  a  rate  of  duty  less  than  20  lire,  per  100  kilos,  on 
the  basis  of  gross  weight;  on  articles  paying  a  higher 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING   273 

rate  of  duty,  duty  is  assessed  either  on  the  basis  of  actual 
or  legal  net  weight.  There  are  at  present  many  customs 
restrictions  in  force  concerning  which  information  may 
be  obtained  from  the  Italian  consul  general,  New  York 
City. 

On  shipments  of  tobacco  weights  must  be  marked  on 
packages,  and  containers  of  medicinal  products  must 
specify  the  dose  and  the  chief  ingredients.  The  steam- 
ship companies  also  have  certain  requirements  which 
should  be  investigated  and  followed. 

Italian  Somaliland  (Eritrea). — Duties  are,  with  few 
exceptions,  ad  valorem.  There  are  no  official  restrictions 
on  marks  or  weights,  but  the  regulations  of  the  steamship 
companies  should  be  investigated.  There  are  no  direct 
steamers  and  all  freight  must  be  transhipped  en  route. 
Packing  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  withstand  all 
hazards  of  rough  transportation  and  an  exceedingly  trop- 
ical climate.  Italian  consuls  may  be  asked  as  to  special 
information  regarding  this  colony. 

Jamaica. — The  climate  of  Jamaica  is  subtropical 
Some  of  the  principal  ports  of  the  island  are  reached  by 
direct  steamers,  others  are  served  by  transhipping  to 
small  steam  or  sailing  coastal  vessels,  involving  repeated  . 
risks  through  additional  handling.  Further  damage  may 
be  incurred  in  transfers  to  custom  houses  which  are  not 
located  immediately  on  the  landing  stages.  Railways  and 
good  highways  reach  the  interior.  No  restrictions  are 
prescribed  as  to  marks  and  weights  of  packages.  The 
steamship  companies,  however,  have  certain  require- 
ments which  should  be  investigated  and  followed.  Ade- 
quate waterproof  protection  to  packages  should  always 
be  given,  in  view  of  the  frequency  of  exposure  to  rain. 

All  commercial  invoices  should  state  that  the  cost  of 
the  outer  packing  is  included  in  the  cost  of  the  goods,  for 
otherwise  duty  will  be  assessed  on  the  packing  or  con- 
tainers. The  custom  laws  provide  that  **in  respect  of 
goods  liable  to  duty  on  the  value  thereof,  the  value  of  all 
outside  and  inside  coverings  or  receptacles  containing 
such  goods,  together  with  the  value  of  all  labels,  wrap- 


274  EXPORT  PACKING 

pers,  or  other  attachments,  shall  be  deemed  to  be  a  por- 
tion of  the  value  of  such  goods  for  duty,  and  shall  be 
included  in  such  value.''  Even  in  the  case  of  rated  or 
free  goods  the  packing  or  coverings  are  subject  to  duty 
when  they  are  apparently  designed  for  other  use  than 
the  importation  of  the  goods,  and  the  packages  of  rated 
goods  are  generally  liable  to  duty.  Moreover,  when  a 
package  contains  ad  valorum  goods  and  free  goods  the 
outer  package  shall  be  liable  to  the  same  rate  of  duty  as 
the  ad  valorum  goods. 

Japan. — Goods  must  be  packed  to  withstand  severe 
handling.  Climatic  conditions,  like  those  of  our  own 
northern  states,  offer  no  difficulties.  There  are  no  gov- 
ernment restrictions  as  to  marks,  weights,  etc.,  although 
the.  steamship  companies  have  regulations  of  their  own 
which  should  be  investigated  and  followed.  As  a  rule  the 
net  weight  is  taken  as  a  base  for  calculating  duties  on 
commodities  which  are  dutiable  by  weight.  However, 
raw  materials  are  mostly  duty  free ;  half  manufactured 
articles  pay  light  duties;  on  manufactured  articles  the 
duties  range  from  15  to  50  per  cent.  There  are  direct 
sailings  for  some  of  the  principal  Japanese  ports  from 
New  York  and  from  our  own  Pacific  ports.  Japan  boasts 
good  railway  and  coasting  steamer  services.  Special 
packing  is,  as  a  rule,  only  required  when  so  ordered. 

Jugo-Slavia. — Transportation  facilities  in  the  new 
state  of  Jugo-Slavia  are  not  yet  in  a  normal  condition. 
There  are  comparatively  insufficient  railway  facilities, 
but  imports  are  usually  repacked  by  local  merchants  for 
interior  distribution.  The  climate  is  temperate.  Under 
the  former  Serbian  tariff  merchandise  dutiable  at  a  rate 
of  less  than  10  dinars  per  100  kilos  is,  with  few  excep- 
tions, subject  to  duty  on  the  basis  of  gross  weight.  Mer- 
chandise subject  to  a  higher  rate  of  duty  than  10  dinars 
per  100  kilos  is,  with  few  exceptions,  subject  to  duty  on 
the  basis  of  legal  net  weight  with  specified  tare  allowance 
fixed  under  a  tare  schedule.  In  view  of  the  prevailing 
conditions  the  consular  regulations  and  those  of  the 
steamship  companies  should  be  investigated  and  followed. 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING  275 

Madagascar. — The  French  tariff,  with  certain  excep- 
tions, and  French  consular  regulations  apply.  Goods  are 
discharged  in  lighters  at  Tamatave.  Packing  should  be 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  withstand  tropical  climate  and  all 
hazards  of  transportation,  including  transhipping  en 
route  as  there  are  rarely  direct  sailings  from  the  United 
States.  General  information  may  be  sought  from  consuls 
of  France. 

Madeira  Islands. — The  customs  regulations  given  un- 
der Portugal  apply.  The  climate  is  tropical.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  direct  steamship  connections,  transhipping  en 
route  is  required  and  freight  is  usually  landed  by  lighter, 
thus  further  increasing  the  handling  of  packages.  The, 
islands  are  a  possession  of  Portugal  and  consuls  of  that 
country  may  be  asked  for  general  information. 

Mauritius. — The  tariff  assesses  specific  duties  based 
on  weight  and  other  units.  Goods  should  be  packed  to 
withstand  tropical  climate  and  all  hazards  of  transporta- 
tion. There  are  no  official  restrictions  as  to  marks  and 
weights.  As  there  are  seldom  direct  sailings  from  Amer- 
ican ports,  transhipment  must  be  expected  and  provided 
against.  The  island  is  a  British  possession  and  infor- 
mation may  be  sought  from  consuls  of  the  United 
Kingdom. 

Mexico. — Goods  for  Mexico  are  shipped  by  direct  all- 
water,  all-rail  or  by  combined  rail  and  water  route. 
Goods  destined  for  interior  points  not  reached  by  rail- 
road are  transported  by  men  or  animals,  and  conse- 
quently the  method  of  packing  depends  on  the  route  se- 
lected, and  the  location  of  the  point  of  destination.  The 
climate  of  Mexico  varies  from  that  of  the  tropics,  along 
the  coast  and  in  the  south,  to  that  of  the  temperate  zone, 
in  the  cities  situated  in  the  central  tableland,  several 
thousand  feet  above  sea  level.  Again  transhipment  con- 
ditions vary  greatly.  Vera  Cruz  and  Tampico,  on  {he  east 
coast,  although  not  good  as  ports  or  with  perfect  equip- 
ment, having  vastly  superior  shipping  and  landing  facili- 
ties to  the  open  roadsteads  of  Progreso,  other  minor 
ports  of  the  east  coast  and  all  those  on  the  west  coast, 


276  EXPORT  PACKING 

where  the  landing  of  cargo  may  be  both  difficult  and 
hazardous,  involving  great  risks  to  packing. 

The  duty  on  merchandise  dutiable  by  weight  is  levied 
on  net,  legal,  or  gross  weight,  according  to  the  provisions 
of  the  tariff.  No  penalty  is  imposed  for  mixed  packing, 
if  the  merchandise  is  declared  properly.  The  following 
definitions  and  rules  are  taken  from  the  general  regula- 
tions for  the  application  of  the  tariff : 

'  *  By  net  weight  is  meant  the  weight  of  the  goods  alone 
without  inner  or  outer  packing. 

**By  legal  weight  is  meant  the  weight  of  the  goods 
together  with  that  of  their  inner  packing,  such  as  wrap- 
pers, receptacles,  cardbbard  and  wooden  boxes,  tins,  etc., 
inclosed  in  the  outer  packing  case.  When  goods  dutiable 
on  legal  weight  are  not  inclosed  in  inner  packages,  but 
in  one  receptacle  only,  the  weight  of  the  goods  alone  will 
be  considered  as  the  legal  weight.  In  establishing  the 
legal  weight  no  account  will  be  taken  of  the  straw  or 
shavings  in  which  the  inner  packages  are  placed  or  of 
the  weight  of  the  outer  receptacle. 

**By  gross  weight  is  meant  the  weight  of  the  goods 
with  all  their  outside  and  inside  coverings,  without  de- 
ducting the  weight  of  the  hoops,  etc.,  used  for  packing. 
When  a  package  contains  different  goods  dutiable  on 
gross  weight,  the  customs  shall,  conformably  to  article 
50  of  the  customs  regulations,  determine  the  tare  in  pro- 
portion to  the  legal  weight  assigned  to  each  kind  of  goods. 
**  Goods  dutiable  on  gross  weight  imported  without  any 
kind  of  packing  or  packed  in  a  material  which  is  also 
dutiable  shall  pay  duty  on  the  total  weight  of  the  goods." 

The  rujes  regarding  mixed  packing  are  given  as  fol- 
lows in  the  customs  regulations: 

**When  a  package  contains  several  kinds  of  merchan- 
dise, subject  to  different  rates  of  duty,  including  some 
dutiable  on  gross  weight,  the  declaration  in  the  invoice 
should  indicate,  in  addition  to  the  total  weight  of  the 
package,  the  legal  weight  of  each  class  of  merchandise 
contained  therein,  in  order  to  facilitate  a  proportional 
division  of  the  gross  weight.  This  declaration  of  the  legal 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    277 

weight  shall  in  no  way  affect  the  declaration  of  net 
weight,  unit,  pair,  thousand,  or  measure  required  for  the 
liquidation  of  the  duty  on  the  merchandise  not  dutiable 
on  gross  weight. 

'^Shippers  may  pack  in  one  case  several  parcels, 
boxes,  bags,  bales,  or  other  packages  containing  the  same 
class  of  goods,  provided  that  they  specify  in  the  consular 
invoice  the  number  of  packages  contained  in  each  bundle, 
bale,  or  case.  Failure  to  comply  with  this  requirement 
or  to  furnish  said  information  within  the  time  limit  al- 
lowed by  law  is  punishable  by  a  fine  not  to  exceed  50 
pesos.  This  information  is  not  required  in  the  case  of 
the  following  classes  of  merchandise : 

^'1.  Bulky  articles  which  are  commonly  shipped 
packed  together,  such  as  iron  and  steel  bars,  tubing,  sheet 
metal,  shingles  and  staves,  wooden  and  metal  casks, 
buckets,  parts  of  machinery,  and  similar  merchandise, 
and  articles  free  of  duty. 

^  ^  2.  Tins  or  interior  packing  of  the  merchandise  con- 
tained in  each  package. 

^*3.  Pieces  of  cloth  packed  in  bales  or  boxes;  bottles 
or  casks  containing  articles  of  food,  drugs,  perfumery, 
etc.,  and,  in  general,  all  small  packages,  bags,  boxes,  or 
other  kind  of  receptacle  contained  in  one  strong 
package. '  * 

Packages  may  be  marked  either  with  a  stencil  or 
brush.     Weight  need  not  be  marked  on  the  packages. 

Every  package  must  be  marked  with  the  name,  initial 
or  mark  of  consignee  and  the  destination  in  full.  The 
packages  of  each  consignment  should  be  marked  consecu- 
tively^ If  possible,  goods  paying  different  duties  should 
not  be  packed  together,  that  is,  goods  assessed  on  gross 
weight  should  not  be  packed  with  goods  assessed  on  legal 
or  net  weight. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  goods  be  packed 
in  accordance  with  any  special  instructions  that  the  im- 
porter may  give.  For  example,  instructions  that  certain 
articles  be  knocked  down  and  the  different  parts  securely 
boxed  in  certain  size  packages,  and  no  package  to  weigh 


278  EXPORT  PACKING 

over  a  certain  amount,  may  seem  irksome  to  follow,  but 
if  final  transportation  of  the  shipment  must  be  made  by 
mule  or  burro,  machinery  weighing  two  or  three  tons 
cannot  well  be  taken  apart  at  a  small  interior  railroad 
station.  The  routing  of  shipments  is  also  important. 
Goods  shipped  by  sea  should  be  more  strongly  boxed  and 
be  better  protected  by  waterproofing  against  sea  spray 
and  tropical  humidity,  than  goods  routed  by  all-rail  lines. 

The  following  is  a  condensation  of  a  paper  read  by 
Mr.  H.  H.  Miller,  of  Torreon,  Mexico,  at  the  trade  con- 
ference held  at  Mexico  City  early  this  year: 

After  goods  or  merchandise  of  any  kind  have  passed 
through  all  the  various  stages  from  the  raw  material  to 
the  finished  product  and  have  been  sold  they  must  then 
be  packed,  billed,  and  shipped  to  the  purchaser.  If  this 
is  not  done  so  that  they  reach  their  final  destination  in 
perfect  condition,  the  work  of  manufacturing  and  mar- 
keting them  will  be  either  partly  or  entirely  lost. 

A  Torreon  importer  sends  the  following  list  of  in- 
structions with  his  orders  to  the  United  States: 

**1.    All  boxes  must  be  strapped  or  wired. 

**2.  All  cartons  containing  glass  shipped  by  freight 
should  be  crated. 

*^3.  Put  large  stickers  on  glassware  containers: 
^Glass-Vidrio.' 

**4.  Machinery  having  small  parts  exposed  must  be 
boxed. 

**5.    All  other  machinery  must  be  crated. 

*^6.    Number  packages  consecutively. 

**7.  Mark  gross,  tare,  and  net  weight  on  each 
package. 

**8.  Send  original  of  bill  of  lading,  packing  list,  and 
manifest  and  copy  of  invoice  to  customs  broker  named. 

*^9.  Send  original  of  invoice  and  copies  of  manifest 
and  packing  list  to  me  here. 

*'10.  Mark  plainly  on  manifest  if  shipment  is  to  be 
forwarded  by  freight  or  express,  according  to  my  in- 
structions. 

11.    All   shipments  should  be   marked   to  me   at 


li 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING  279 

border  point  and  in  care  of  the  customs  broker  named. 

^'12.     Do  not  split  shipments.'' 

There  is  a  reason  for  each  of  these  instructions,  and 
failure  to  comply  with  any  one  of  them  may  mean  de- 
lay or  extra  expense  to  the  purchaser. 

Discussion  of  Instructions. — Comment  on  the  first 
three  is  not  necessary.  Most  reliable  houses  comply 
with  them  even  if  they  are  not  included  in  the  shipping 
instructions. 

Nos.  4  and  5. — Aside  from  protection  against  break- 
age and  loss  of  pieces,  there  is  another  reason  for  box- 
ing or  crating  machines.  In  Mexico  an  extra  50  per  cent 
is  added  to  the  regular  freight  rates  on  all  machinery  in 
less  than  carload  lots  that  is  not  boxed  or  crated. 

No.  6. — Numbering  the  boxes  or  packages  is  very  im- 
portant. It  is  the  only  way  to  check  them  against  the 
packing  list,  which  should  be  sent  to  the  customs  broker 
who  is  to  pass  the  shipment  across  the  border  and  for- 
ward it. 

A  great  many  shippers  do  not  seem  to  understand 
the  nature  of  a  packing  list  and  a  manifest,  or  the  neces- 
sity of  making  them,  so  it  might  be  well  to  give  a  little 
time  to  the  details  of  forwarding  a  shipment  from  a 
border  point  to  the  interior  of  Mexico.  In  the  old  days 
the  railroads  and  express  companies  could  receive  ship- 
ments consigned  to  Mexico  and  give  receipts  or  bills  of 
lading  from  their  point  of  origin  in  the  United  States 
to  their  final  destination.  Now  it  is  different,  and  every- 
thing sent  either  by  freight  or  express  must  be  reshipped 
from  the  border  point  the  same  as  a  new  shipment  origi- 
nating there. 

If  a  shipment  is  made  to  John  Jones  at  Torreon,  it 
is  not  sent  direct  to  Torreon,  but  in  care  of  a  designated 
customs  broker  at  El  Paso,  Eagle  Pass,  or  other  port  of 
entry.  The  bill  of  lading,  packing  list,  manifest,  and 
copy  of  invoice  must  also  be  sent  to  this  same  customs 
broker,  so  that  he  will  be  in  a  position  to  apply  for  a 
consular  invoice,  comply  with  all  the  requirements  of 
the  custom-house,  and  at  the  same  time  act  intelligently 


280  EXPORT  PACKING 

and  with  despatch  for  the  consider  and  the  consignee. 

When  a  shipment  reaches  the  border,  if  it  is  a  full 
carload,  the  broker  may  put  up  a  $2,000  bond  guaran- 
teeing the  safe  return  of  the  car  to  the  United  States  and 
get  permission  to  have  it  switched  to  the  Mexican  side, 
where  the  contents  are  .transferred  to  another  car.  If 
it  is  less  than  a  carload  it  is  carried  across  in  trucks. 
A  consular  invoice,  the  packing  list,  manifest,  and  copy 
of  invoice  goes  with  the  goods  to  the  custom-house. 

At  the  custom-house  the  officials  are  supposed  to  open 
each  box,  inspect  and  weigh  the  contents,  check  them 
against  packing  lists  and  manifests,  and  assess  the  duties. 
As  a  rule  they  do  not  open  all,  if  the  papers  and  docu- 
ments are  made  out  properly  so  they  can  obtain  the 
necessary  data  from  them  instead  of  from  an  actual  in- 
spection of  the  packages  themselves.  If  no  packing  lists 
or  manifests  are  furnished,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
open  and  unpack  everything  in  order  to  get  the  proper 
weight  and  values  and  figure  the  duties.  This  takes  some 
time,  and  there  is  always  danger  of  small  or  fragile  ar- 
ticles being  broken  or  lost  in  the  operation.  From  the 
custom-house  they  go  to  the  freight  or  express  office, 
where  they  are  reshipped  to  their  final  destination. 

Explanation  of  Terms. — A  packing  list  gives  the 
number  of  each  box  or  package  in  the  shipment  and  a 
list  of  its  contents.  A  manifest  gives  the  weight,  kind 
of  material,  and  value  of  each  article  in  the  packages.  A 
good  form  frequently  used  which  is  an  invoice,  packing 
list,  and  manifest  all  in  one,  is  more  or  less  as  follows : 

Chicago,  III,  November  15,  1919. 
Sold  to  H.  H.  Miller,  Torreon,  Coahuila,  Mexico. 
Shipped  to  H.  H.  Miller,  care  of  T.  J.  Woodside,  El 
Paso,  Tex.;  by  freight  to  El  Paso;  from  Juarez  to 
Torreon  by  express. 
Box  No.  1.     Gross  weight,  75  kilos. 
Net  weight,  65  kilos. 

1  steel  miter  box,  steel  and  brass,  40  kilos. .  .$12 

2  dozen  12-inch  files,  steel,  12  kilos 15 

3  dozen  hack-saw  blades,  steel,  13  kilos 9 


^. 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    281 

Marking  of  Weights  Necessary. — No.  7. — Mark- 
ing the  gross,  tare,  and  net  weight  on  the  package  is  for 
the  convenience  of  the  forwarding  agent  and  the  customs 
house  employees.  It  very  often  saves  time  and  extra 
work  and  should  not  be  overlooked. 

The  metric  system  is  the  legal  standard  for  weight 
in  Mexico  and  is  the  one  used  for  figuring  the  duties,  so 
it  is  better  to  give  all  weights  in  kilos  if  possible.  A  few 
houses  give  the  weight  in  kilos,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
customs  house,  and  also  in  pounds,  for  the  convenience  of 
themselves  and  customers.  Weights  given  in  pounds  only 
entail  some  work  in  figuring  their  metric  equivalent,  but 
can  be  used  and  are  far  better  than  no  weights  at  all. 

Buyers  sometimes  instruct  to  give  gross,  net  and 
legal  weights  of  each  article,  as  duties  on  some  classes 
of  goods  are  based  on  the  gross  weight,  some  on  the  net, 
and  others  on  the  legal  weight.  It  is  rather  hard  to  give 
a  set  rule  covering  this  point  and  the  billing  clerk  should 
be  able  to  judge  by  the  nature  of  the  articles  themselves 
what  weights  should  be  given.  In  many  cases,  aside  from 
the  weight  of  the  packing  case,  there  are  no  gross  or 
legal  weights  to  be  considered.  Legal  weight  means  the 
weight  of  the  article  itself  and  of  its  container  or  imme- 
diate wrapping,  as  bottles  of  medicine  or  canned  goods. 
In  this  class  of  goods  the  legal  weight  should  be  given 
and  marked  as  ^* legal.'' 

Some  European  houses  have  experts  on  the  customs 
regulations  of  the  various  countries  and  give  the  classi- 
fication each  article  in  the  shipment  should  come  under 
and  the  rate  of  duty  it  should  pay.  This  is  a  great  con- 
venience to  the  forwarding  agent  and  to  the  man  who 
receives  the  goods.  In  case  of  a  doubt  at  the  customs 
house  as  to  the  proper  classification  it  enables  the  broker 
to  select  and  insist  on  the  one  that  is  most  favorable, 
and  helps  the  purchaser  to  check  his  customs  sheets  and 
see  if  any  excessive  charges  have  been  collected. 

Consignment  of  Shipments. — Nos.  8  and  9.— When 
shipments  are  consigned  to  a  customs  broker  at  a  border 
point  and  are  to  be  reshipped  by  him,  he  must  have  the 


282  EXPORT  PACKING 

original  bill  of  lading.  When  we  get  back  to  the  old  style 
of  business  and  a  through  bill  of  lading  is  given  from 
point  of  origin  to  final  destination,  then  the  original  must 
be  sent  to  the  consignee  and  a  copy  to  the  broker.  The 
broker  needs  only  a  copy  of  the  invoice,  but  should  have 
originals  of  packing  list  and  manifest.  In  case  all  three 
are  made  in  one,  like  the  form  given  above,  a  copy  to  the 
broker  is  all  right.  Considerable  trouble  has  often  been 
had  on  account  of  shippers  sending  original  papers  to 
the  broker  when  he  should  have  only  the  copies,  and  vice 
versa.  If  exporters  would  only  look  over  the  shipping 
instructions,  they  would  avoid  many  delays  and  other  in- 
conveniences in  Mexico  and  at  the  border. 

No.  10. — ^Very  often  shipments  are  sent  to  the  border 
by  freight  and  forwarded  from  there  to  the  interior  by 
express.  Sometimes  it  happens  that  something  is  wanted 
in  a  rush  and  the  broker  forwards  it  by  freight,  and  at 
other  times  heavy  machinery  for  which  there  is  no  hurry 
is  sent  by  express.  Generally  this  is  because  the  broker 
has  no  specific  instructions  and  uses  his  own  judgment, 
which  at  times  is  wrong.  If  shipping  instructions  are 
given  with  the  order  relative  to  forwarding  from  the 
border,  they  should  be  noted  clearly  on  the  manifest  that 
is  sent  to  the  broker. 

No.  11. — Sometimes  a  broker  receives  shipments  con- 
signed direct  to  him  and  he  does  not  know  for  whom  they 
are  intended.  He  must  write  for  this  information  or 
wait  till  an  inquiry  or  complaint  is  made.  Everything 
shipped  to  him  should  also  bear  the  name  of  the  final 
consignee. 

No.  12. — It  is  very  important  not  to  split  the  ship- 
ments as  it  causes  extra  trouble  and  expense. 

New  Zealand. — Terminal  and  transportation  condi- 
tions in  New  Zealand  are  very  good.  There  are  direct 
sailings  from  New  York  and  San  Francisco  for  some  of 
the  principal  ports  where  freight  is  transhipped  by 
excellent  coastal  boats  to  minor  ports.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  goods  destined  to  New  Zealand  as  to  all  of  the 
southern  hemisphere  must  cross  the  equator  and  pass 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    283 

through  the  tropical  belt  on  their  voyage  there.  The 
climate  of  New  Zealand  is  temperate.  There  are  no 
oflScial  restrictions  as  to  marks  or  weights,  but  certain  of 
the  steamship  companies  have  their  own  regulations 
which  should  be  carefully  investigated.  The  interests  of 
New  Zealand  in  the  United  States  are  cared  for  by 
British  consular  officials,  from  whom  the  official  regula- 
tions may  be  obtained.  No  unusual  attention  or  special 
packing  is  required  for  shipments  to  New  Zealand,  except 
as  specific  instructions  may  be  received  from  consignees. 

New  Zealand  laws  are  very  strict  with  respect  to 
labeling  of  food  and  pharmaceutical  products  and  the 
marking  of  footwear.  The  following  quotation  from  the 
Footwear  Regulation  Act  of  1913  contains  the  most 
important  requirements  of  the  act: 

**No  person  shall  manufacture  for  sale,  or  sell,  or 
offer  or  expose  for  sale  any  boots  or  shoes  the  soles  of 
which  consist  wholly  or  partly  of  leather,  or  any  imitation 
of  leather,  or  of  any  material  having  the  appearance  of 
leather,  unless : 

**  (a)  The  soles  thereof  are  of  leather  without  admix- 
ture or  addition  other  than  materials  used  for  filling 
spaces,  shanks,  or  rubber  outsoles,  or  in  the  case  of 
ladies'  fancy  or  evening  footwear,  of  heels  of  wood  or 
celluloid;  or 

**(b)  A  statement  of  the  material  or  materials  com- 
posing the  soles  thereof  is  conspicuously  and  legibly 
stamped  upon  or  impressed  into  the  outer  surface  of  the 
sole  of  each  boot  or  shoe.'* 

In  all  cases  where,  in  accordance  with  the  Footwear 
Regulation  Act,  1913,  of  New  Zealand,  it  is  required  that 
a  statement  of  the  material  or  materials  composing  the 
soles  of  any  boots  or  shoes  be  stamped  on  or  impressed 
into  the  outer  surface  of  the  sole,  the  following  rules  are 
to  be  observed : 

**The  statement  shall  be  stamped  in  indelible  ink  on 
the  soles  of  such  boots  or  shoes  and  shall  be  in  bold  type 
of  such  size  and  distinctness  that  it  may  be  read  with  ease 
by  any  person  of  normal  sight  at  a  distance  of  at  least 
5  feet. 


284  EXPORT  PACKING 

^*The  statement  shall  be  impressed  into  the  soles  by 
means  of  sunk  or  branded  lettering  of  snch  size  and  dis- 
tinctness that  it  may  be  read  with  ease  by  any  person  of 
normal  sight  at  a  distance  of  at  least  5  feet,  or  shall  be 
embossed  on  the  soles  in  lettering  of  like  size  and 
distinctness." 

The  regulations  with  respect  to  food  products  and 
pharmaceutical  preparations  adopted  under  the  ^  *  Sale  of 
Food  and  Drugs  Act''  of  March  4,  1913,  apply  both  to 
imported  commodities  and  those  of  local  manufacture. 
Under  this  act  it  is  provided  that : 

**2.  (1)  Except  as  hereinafter  otherwise  provided, 
it  shall  not  be  lawful  for  any  person,  after  the  commence- 
ment of  these  regulations,  to  sell  any  package  containing 
any  food  unless  there  is  legibly  and  durably  marked  on 
or  attached  to  that  package  a  statement  or  label  contain- 
ing the  following  particulars,  namely : 

**(a)  The  name  or  trade-name,  or  description  of  the 
article ; 

**(b)  In  the  case  of  compounded,  mixed,  or  blended 
foods,  words  which  indicate  that  the  contents  are  com- 
pounded, mixed,  or  blended,  together  with  the  words 
*  imitation,'  *  compound,'  or  *  blend,'  as  the  case  may 
require ; 

**  (c)  A  statement  of  the  net  weight  or  volume,  or  of 
the  true  number,  of  the  contents  of  any  package,  and  any 
necessary  statement  regarding  grade  or  quality.  Unless 
otherwise  specified,  the  statements  required  by  this  para- 
graph shall  appear  together  in  the  principal  label  within 
a  panel  having  a  light-colored  ground  in  gold-faced 
sans-serif  capital  types  of  not  less  than  six  points  face 
measurement; 

**(d)  The  name  and  address  of  the  manufacturer  of 
the  article  or  of  the  seller  thereof,  or  of  the  owner  of  the 
rights  of  manufacture,  or  of  the  agent  of  any  of  them; 

**(e)  Such  other  particulars  as  are  required  by  the 
regulations  in  Part  II  hereof  to  be  given  in  the  case  of 
any  particular  article ; 

**(f)  Such  other  particulars  as  the  manufacturer  or 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING  2B5 

the  seller,  or  the  agent  of  either  of  them,  desires  to  add. 

**  (2)  No  descriptive  matter  written  on  or  attached  to 
a  package  which  contains  any  food  shall  include  any  com- 
ment on,  reference  to,  or  explanation  of  any  statement  or 
label  required  by  these  regulations  to  be  written  on  or 
attached  to  any  such  package  if  such  comment,  reference, 
or  explanation  directly  or  by  implication  contradicts, 
qualifies,  or  modifies  any  such  statement  or  the  contents 
of  such  label. 

^*3  No  label  which  describes  any  article  of  food 
shall  include  the  word  *pure,'  or  any  word  of  the  same 
significance,  unless  the  article  is  of  the  prescribed  com- 
position, strength,  purity,  or  quality,  and  unless  it  is  free 
from  added  foreign  substances. 

**4  Notwithstanding  anything  to  the  contrary  in 
these  regulations,  words  required  to  be  written  in  types 
of  size  of  not  less  than  six  points  face  measurement  may 
be  written  in  types  of  proportionately  reduced  size  when 
the  package  containing  a  food  or  drug  for  sale  is  so  small 
as  to  prevent  the  use  of  types  of  the  prescribed  size." 

The  act  contains  definite  regulations  with  respect  to 
the  marking,  preparation,  and  condition  of  purity  re- 
quired in  a  great  variety  of  food  and  pharmaceutical 
products.  It  may  be  found  in  the  **New  Zealand  Ga- 
zette'*  of  March  6,  1913. 

Nicaragua. — Transportation  and  transhipment  con- 
ditions in  Nicaragua  are  of  the  most  primitive  type,  and 
goods  should  be  packed  to  withstand  every  hazard  of 
heat,  humidity  in  tropical  waters,  bad  handling  and 
exposure  to  heavy  rains  during  the  rainy  season. 

Bluefields,  on  the  Caribbean  coast,  is  reached  by 
direct  steamers  from  New  Orleans;  ports  on  the  Pacific 
side  are  connected  with  San  Francisco  by  direct  steam- 
ship service.  The  main  port  of  entry  is  Corinto,  which 
is  connected  with  the  capital  by  rail.  There  are  good 
docks  at  this  port.  Apart  from  these,  transhipment  is 
necessary.  Landing  conditions  are  bad  and  interior 
transportation  crude  and  rough.  Many  districts  can  only 
be  reached  by  mules  that  can  carry  two  packages  of  not 


286  EXPORT  PACKING 

exceeding  125  pounds  each.  Freight  is  transferred  from 
and  to  warehouses  on  men's  backs. 

It  is  not  permitted  to  pack  more  than  10  kinds  of 
merchandise  in  one  receptacle.  If  articles  subject  to 
duty  under  different  tariff  classifications  are  packed  in 
one  receptacle  each  different  class  of  goods  must  be 
packed  or  wrapped  separately,  or  be  in  a  different  bundle, 
at  the  convenience  of  the  shipper,  so  that  its  weight  may 
be  compared  by  the  customs  authorities  with  that  de- 
clared in  the  invoice  and  the  appropriate  duty  assessed 
on  each  class.  If  this  requirement  has  not  been  complied 
with  by  the  shipper  an  additional  tax  of  5  per  cent  on  the 
tariff  appraisement  is  assessed  on  the  entire  contents  of 
the  package. 

The  new  Nicaraguan  tariff,  unlike  the  old  tariff, 
assesses  the  greater  number  of  duties  on  net  weight. 
This  is  stated  to  be  the  weight  of  the  goods  including 
the  weight  of  individual  containers,  such  as  cartons  and 
so  on.  Toilet  articles,  perfumery  and  cosmetics  must  be 
packed  in  the  containers  in  which  they  are  going  to  be 
retailed,  otherwise  there  will  be  a  surtax  of  100  per  cent 
levied  at  the  custom  house.  Packages  may  be  marked 
with  either  stencil  or  brush.  Weights  need  not  appear 
on  packages. 

Norway.— Transportation,  landing,  and  climatic  con- 
ditions are  in  general  similar  to  those  of  the  United 
States,  and  there  are  no  restrictions  as  to  weights  and 
marks  other  than  those  of  the  steamship  companies. 
Direct  steamers  operate  between  American  and  Nor- 
wegian ports.  Duty  on  most  articles  is  assessed  on  the 
basis  of  legal  net  weight,  but  in  some  instances  the  weight 
of  the  outer  receptacle  only  is  deducted  from  the  gross 
weight,  the  weight  of  the  immediate  packing  being 
included  in  that  subject  to  duty. 

Panama.— Outside  of  the  Canal  Zone,  traversed  by 
the  railway,  the  Republic  of  Panama  offers  only  the 
most  primitive  transportation  and  terminal  facilities 
with  very  rough  handling  at  every  stage.  Packing  should 
therefore  be  of  the  most  sturdy  character  to  resist  trop- 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    287 

ical  heat,  humidity,  perils  of  land  and  sea.  Landing 
facilities  at  Colon  are  excellent  and  there  are  direct 
steamships.  Most  articles  imported  into  Panama  are 
subject  to  ad  valorem  duties. 

Weights  need  not  be  indicated  on  the  packages,  which 
may  be  marked  with  stencil  or  brush. 

Para;guay.— Transportation  in  Paraguay  is  almost 
exclusively  by  mule,  carts,  and  boat.  All  goods  for 
Asuncion  are  transhipped  at  Montevideo  or  Buenos 
Aires'  and  all  cases  for  transhipment  must  be  marked 
with  the  number  of  the  package,  the  destination,  point  of 
transhipment  and  the  weight  in  kilos ;  all  of  which  must 
follow  the  shipping  mark.  Packages  should  also  be 
marked:  **Transito  para  Paraguay,''  in  order  to  avoid 
customs  duties  in  Buenos  Aires  or  Montevideo.  The 
packing  should  be  of  the  most  sturdy  character  and  de- 
signed to  withstand  hot  weather,  rains  and  all  packing 
hazards,  including  at  least  one  transhipment  and  possi- 
bly several. 

Many  classes  of  goods  imported  into  Paraguay  are 
dutiable  on  the  weight  of  the  goods  and  the  individual 
container  and  frequently  an  effort  is  made  to  reduce  this 
duty  by  shipping  goods  in  bulk  in  a  single  container. 
Goods  so  shipped  are  dutiable  on  net  weight  and  are  sub- 
ject to  a  surtax  of  10  per  cent. 

Persia.— Packing  should  be  able  to  take  care  of  severe 
climatic  and  transportation  hazards  by  land  and  sea.  The 
greater  part  of  the  merchandise  imported  into  Persia 
comes  through  ports  on  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas  and 
the  Persian  Gulf,  to  reach  which  at  least  one  tranship- 
ment en  route  is  usually  required.  Overland  transpor- 
tation is  usually  by  camel,  mule,  or  sometimes  donkey. 
Since  mules  are  commonly  more  readily  available  than 
are  camels  it  is  recommended  that  packages  be  oblong  in 
shape,  not  to  exceed  36x24x24  inches,  and  not  weighing 
over  120  to  150  pounds,  as  mules  carry  a  gross  weight 
of  250  to  300  pounds  in  two  packages.  Camels  in  Persia 
can  carry  up  to  400  pounds  in  two  packages  of  not  over 
200  pounds  each.    There  is  constant  loading,  unloading 


288  EXPORT  PACKING 

and  rough  handling,  sometimes  extending  over  weeks. 
The  climate  ranges  from  temperate,  with  wintry  condi- 
tions in  the  Black  Sea  during  the  season,  to  tropical. 
There  are  no  restrictions  as  to  weights  and  marks  other 
than  those  of  the  steamship  companies.  Duties  are  chiefly 
ad  valorum  or  classified. 

Peru.— Conditions  of  landing  and  interior  transporta- 
tion are  very  unsatisfactory.  Cargo  is  usually  lightered 
to  shore,  and  there  are  no  good  harbors  except  Callao 
and  Paita.  There  are  direct  steamship  lines  from  the 
United  States.  The  climate  of  Peru  is  temperate.  Goods 
must  be  packed  strongly  against  all  perils ;  facilities  are 
primitive  and  handling  rough,  and  packages  must  be  de- 
signed for  transportation  (when  so  ordered,  or  when  des- 
tined for  interior  points)  by  llama,  burro,  porters,  etc. 
The  load  of  a  llama  is  regarded  as  about  100  pounds, 
of  a  burro  150  to  200  pounds,  divided  into  two  packages, 
each  half  of  those  weights. 

Duty  on  articles  dutiable  by  weight  may  be  assessed 
on  the  basis  of  gross  weight;  net  weight,  which  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  weight  obtained  by  deducting  tare  allowance 
specifically  indicated  from  the  gross  weight;  or  on  the 
basis  of  legal  weight,  which  is  the  weight  of  the  mer- 
chandise, together  with  that  of  its  packing,  but  which 
does  not  include  the  weight  of  the  outer  container.  If 
merchandise  subject  to  duty  on  the  basis  of  gross  weight 
is  packed  in  the  same  container  with  other  merchandise, 
either  dutiable  on  another  basis  or  subject  to  other  rates 
of  duty,  the  customs  authorities  add  25  per  cent  to  the 
weight  of  the  merchandise  dutiable  on  gross  weight,  in- 
cluding its  immediate  packing  and  a  proportionate  share 
of  the  shavings,  straw  or  other  packing  material.  The 
regulations  prescribe  an  addition  of  60  per  cent  to  the 
weight,  in  the  case  of  pianos  and  beds.  Separate  duties 
are  assessed  on  receptacles  containing  free  goods  as 
well  as  on  those  subject  to  a  higher  rate  of  duty  than  their 
contents.  Packages  may  be  marked  with  stencil  or  brush 
and  should  show  the  gross  weight. 

Philippine  Islands. — Packing  should  be  designed  to 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    289 

withstand  severe  handling  and  intense  tropical  heat  and 
humidity.  The  steamship  companies'  regulations  with 
reference  to  marking  should  be  strictly  followed.  There 
are  direct  steamship  lines  from  both  the  east  and  west 
coasts  of  the  United  States.  Special  packing,  if  and 
when  required,  is  always  indicated  in  instructions  re- 
ceived from  Philippine  importers.  The  islands  being 
American,  there  are  no  import  duties  to  be  taken  into 
consideration  as  affecting  American  goods.  Information 
regarding  the  islands  is  available  at  the  Bureau  of  In- 
sular Affairs,  War  Department,  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  following  Sections  of  the  Philippine  Tariff  Act 
of  1909  are  of  interest : 

*'KuLE  13.  (a)  Whenever  imported  merchandise  is 
subject  to  an  ad  valorem  rate  of  duty,  the  duty  shall  be 
assessed  upon  the  actual  market  value  or  wholesale  price 
of  such  merchandise,  as  bought  and  sold  in  usual  whole- 
sale quantities,  at  the  time  of  exportation  to  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  in  the  principal  markets  of  the  country 
from  whence  imported,  and  in  the  condition  in  which  such 
merchandise  is  there  bought  and  sold  for  exportation  to 
the  Philippine  Islands,  or  consigned  to  the  Philippine 
Islands  for  sale,  including  the  value  of  all  cartons,  cases, 
crates,  boxes,  sacks,  and  coverings  of  any  kind,  and  all 
other  costs,  charges,  and  expenses  incident  to  placing  the 
merchandise  in  condition,  packed  ready  for  shipment  to 
the  Philippine  Islands. 

**  (b)  Whenever  an  article  is  subject  to  an  alternative 
minimum  ad  valorem  rate,  the  alternative  ad  valorem 
duty  shall  be  ascertained  by  applying  the  corresponding 
ad  valorem  rate  to  such  merchandise,  inclusive  of  all 
costs  and  charges  mentioned  in  clause  (a)  of  this  rule. 

*^(c)  The  term  *  retail  package'  wherever  used  in 
this  Act  shall  be  held  to  mean  any  article,  goods,  wares, 
or  merchandise,  together  with  the  holders,  containers, 
packages,  or  packing,  in  which  such  article,  goods,  wares, 
or  merchandise  is  usually  held,  contained,  or  packed  at 
the  time  of  its  sale  to  the  public  in  usual  retail  quan- 
tities. 


290  EXPORT  PACKING 

**(d)  Wherever  it  is  provided  in  this  Act  that  arti- 
cles, goods,  wares,  or  merchandise  shall  be  dutiable,  in- 
cluding weight  of  immediate  containers,'  the  dutiable 
weight  thereof  shall  be  held  to  be  the  weight  of  same, 
together  with  the  weight  of  the  immediate  container, 
holder,  or  packing  only:  Provided,  That  wherever  in 
this  Act  the  term  including  weight  of  immediate  con- 
tainers' and  the  term  *  retail  package'  are  both  used  in 
the  same  paragraph  or  clause,  the  dutiable  weight  shall 
be  the  weight  of  the  retail  package. 

^  *  (e)  Wherever  it  is  provided  in  this  Act  that  articles, 
goods,  wares,  or  merchandise  shall  be  dutiable  by  *  gross 
weight,'  the  dutiable  weight  thereof  shall  be  held  to  be 
the  weight  of  same,  together  with  the  weight  of  all  con- 
tainers, packages,  holders,  and  packing,  of  whatsoever 
kind  or  character,  in  which  said  articles,  goods,  wares, 
and  merchandise  are  contained,  held,  or  packed  at  the 
time  of  importation. 

**(f)  Articles,  goods,  wares,  or  merchandise  affixed 
to  card-board,  cards,  paper,  wood,  or  similar  common  ma- 
terial shall  be  dutiable  together  with  the  weight  of  such 
packing. 

**(g)  The  usual  tapes,  boards,  and  immediate  wrap- 
ping shall  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  dutiable  weight 
of  textiles. 

**(h)  No  duties  shall  be  assessed  on  account  of  the 
usual  coverings  or  holdings  of  articles,  goods,  wares,  or 
merchandise  dutiable  otherwise  than  ad  valorem,  nor 
those  free  of  duty,  except  as  in  this  Act  expressly  pro- 
vided, but  if  there  be  used  for  covering  or  holding  im- 
ported articles,  goods,  wares,  or  merchandise,  whether 
dutiable  or  free,  any  unusual  article,  form,  or  material 
adapted  for  use  otherwise  than  in  the  bona  fide  trans- 
portation of  such  articles,  goods,  wares,  or  merchandise 
to  the  Philippine  Islands,  duty  shall  be  levied  and  col- 
lected on  sufch  covering  or  holding  in  accordance  with 
corresponding  paragraphs  of  this  Act. 

**(i)  Whenever  the  interior  container  or  packing  of 
any  article  dutiable  by  weight  is  of  an  unusual  char- 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    291 

acter,  including  silk-lined  cases,  cases  of  fine  wood,  silk, 
leather,  or  imitations  thereof,  such  as  are  used  to  contain 
jewelry,  plate,  trinkets,  and  the  like,  such  containers  or 
packing  shall  be  dutiable  at  the  rate  applicable  to  the 
component  material  of  chief  value. 

''  (j)  When  a  single  package  contains  imported  mer- 
chandise dutiable  according  to  different  weights,  or 
weight  and  ad  valorem,  the  common  exterior  receptacle 
shall  be  prorated  and  the  different  proportions  thereof 
treated  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  this  rule  as 
to  the  dutiability  or  nondutiability  of  such  packing. 

^^(k)  Where  articles,  goods,  wares,  or  merchandise 
dutiable  by  weight,  and  not  otherwise  specially  provided 
for,  are  customarily  contained  in  packing,  packages,  or 
receptacles  of  uniform  or  similar  character,  it  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  insular  collector  of  customs,  from  time 
to  time,  to  ascertain  by  tests  the  actual  weight  or  quan- 
tity of  such  articles,  goods,  wares,  or  merchandise,  and 
the  actual  weight  of  the  packages,  packing,  or  receptacles 
thereof,  respectively,  in  which  the  same  are  customarily 
imported,  and  upon  such  ascertainment,  to  prescribe 
rules  for  estimating  the  dutiable  weight  or  quantity 
thereof,  and  thereafter  such  articles,  goods,  wares,  or 
merchandise  imported  in  such  customary  packing,  pack- 
ages, or  receptacles  shall  be  entered  and  the  duties 
thereon  levied  and  collected  upon  the  basis  of  such  esti- 
mated dutiable  weight  or  quantity:  Provided,  That  if 
the  importer,  consignee,  or  agent  shall  be  dissatisfied 
with  such  estimated  dutiable  weight  or  quantity,  and 
shall  file  with  the  collector  of  customs  prior  to  the  de- 
livery of  the  packages  designated  for  examination  a  writ- 
ten specification  of  his  objections  thereto,  or  if  the  col- 
lector of  customs  shall  have  reason  to  doubt  the  exactness 
of  the  prescribed  weight  or  quantity  in  any  instance,  it 
shall  be  his  duty  to  cause  such  actual  weights  or  quan- 
tities to  be  ascertained. 

A.  B.  Cresap,  General  Manager  of  the  Luzon  Broker- 
age Company,  makes  the  following  statement : 

**Many  exporters  in  the  United  States  seem  to  be  of 


292  EXPORT  PACKING 

the  impression  that  foreign  goods  which  have  been  im- 
ported into  the  United  States  and  duty  paid  upon  their 
entry,  are  'free  of  duty'  upon  importation  into  the 
Philippine  Islands.  This  is  not  the  case.  All  foreign 
merchandise  imported  into  the  Philippine  Islands  is  sub- 
ject to  duty  regardless  of  the  fact  that  it  may  have  paid 
duty  upon  entry  into  the  United  States. 

**One  of  the  greatest  sources  of  loss  of  the  Philippine 
merchants  on  foreign  merchandise  imported  from  the 
United  States,  is  from  the  fact  that  importers  in  the 
United  States  will  ship  foreign  merchandise  together 
with  domestic  merchandise  in  one  invoice  and  fail  to 
make  notation  of  this  on  their  invoices,  and  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases,  even  certify  that  the  entire  invoice  is  of 
American  origin  or  manufacture.  In  cases  of  this  kind, 
the  importer  is  subject  to  a  fine  of  from  one  to  five  times 
the  duty  and,  in  almost  every  case,  at  least  the  minimum 
is  imposed.  In  addition  to  this  loss  caused  to  the  im- 
porter, by  oversight  or  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the 
shipper,  the  shipper  is  naturally  placed  under  suspicion 
and  all  importations  coming  from  him  are  most  carefully 
scrutinized. 

*' Another  very  important  matter  is  that  of  marking. 
Marks  should  be  plain  in  big  letters.  If  stencils  are  used, 
they  should  be  placed  at  least  on  two  sides  of  a  package. 
Ninety-eight  per  cent  of  unclaimed  merchandise  which  is 
sold  in  the  Philippine  Islands  annually,  and  which  runs 
into  thousands  of  dollars,  is  because  the  marks  have  been 
rubbed  off,  or  so  mutilated  that  they  cannot  be  read,  or 
that  the  merchandise  has  been  packed  insufficiently  and 
cannot  be  identified  when  it  arrives  in  the  Philippine, 
Islands.'' 

Poland. — Climatic  conditions  are  temperate  and  offer 
no  difficulties,  and  there  is  good  railway  service,  in  nor- 
mal times,  between  the  principal  cities.  Direct  steamers 
ply  from  New  York  to  Danzig,  where  landing  facilities 
are  satisfactory.  The  customs  tariff  of  Poland  as  at  pres- 
ent in  force  consists  of  98  items  covering  articles  subject 
to  duty,  the  duties  assessed  being  specific. 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    293 

Porto  Rico. — Transportation  conditions  by  railway, 
motor  truck  and  coasting  vessels  are  normal.  The  climate 
of  Porto  Rico  is  tropical.  All  packages  which  may  form 
the  basis  of  commercial  transactions  must  have  the  net 
weight  or  quantity  plainly  marked  on  the  outside.  There 
are  strict  regulations  concerning  the  marking  of  bundles 
or  other  packages  containing  medicinal  preparations  of 
which  distilled  spirits  form  a  component  part.  Porto 
Rico  is  United  States  territory  and  no  import  tariff 
affects  American  packing.  The  steamship  companies 
make  certain  regulations  with  respect  to  packing  that 
should  be  investigated  and  followed.  Direct  services 
connect  the  chief  ports  of  the  island  with  New  York  and 
New  Orleans.  Freight  is  usually  lightered  from  steamer 
to  shore. 

Portugal. — Transportation,  usually  by  railway,  and 
climatic  conditions,  warm  but  not  tropical,  offer  no 
difficulties.  Packages  may  be  marked  with  either  stencil 
or  brush,  and  some  of  the  steamship  companies  require 
that  the  gross  weight  in  kilos  should  appear  upon  the 
package.  There  are  some  direct  sailings  from  New  York, 
but  freight  may  often  be  transhipped  en  route.  Land- 
ing facilities  are  satisfactory.  Duty  is  assessed  on  the 
basis  of  gross  weight  on  merchandise  subject  to  a  rate  of 
less  than  5  reis  per  kilo.  On  articles  subject  to  higher 
rates  duty  is  assessed  on  the  basis  of  either  actual  or 
legal  net  weight.  There  are  strict  regulations  with  re- 
spect to  the  labeling  and  packing  of  patent  medicines  and 
pharmaceutical  preparations,  which  should  be  investi- 
gated by  exporters  of  those  products. 

Portuguese  East  Africa  (Mozambique). — The  consu- 
lar regulations  of  Portugal  apply.  Goods  should  be 
packed  to  withstand  tropical  climate.  The  port  of  Lou- 
rengo  Marques  has  modern  terminal  facilities,  but  in- 
terior transportation  is  not  good.  The  regulations  of  the 
steamship  companies  should  be  investigated.  Most  cargo 
from  the  United  States  must  be  transhipped  en  route. 
Consults  of  Portugal  may  be  asked  for  general  informa- 
tion regarding  the  colony. 


294  EXPORT  PACKING 

Portuguese  West  Africa  (Angola). — The  consular 
regulations  of  Portugal  apply.  The  regulations  of  the 
steamship  companies  should  be  investigated.  Packing 
should  be  such  as  to  withstand  tropical  climate  and  all 
hazards  of  transportation.  Goods  must  be  transhipped 
en  route;  landing  and  other  local  facilities  are  far  from 
satisfactory.  Information  may  be  sought  from  consuls 
of  Portugal. 

Reunion. — The  French  tariff,  with  certain  exceptions, 
and  French  consular  regulations  apply.  Packing  should 
be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  withstand  tropical  climate  and 
all  hazards  of  transportation.  Occasionally  there  is  a 
direct  steamer  from  New  York,  but  ordinarily  cargo  is 
transhipped  en  route.  The  island  is  a  French  posses- 
sion and  information  regarding  it  may  be  available  at 
consulates  of  France. 

Roumania. — Transportation  facilities  in  Koumania 
are,  in  normal  times,  satisfactory,  the  railway  system 
reaching  the  principal  centers.  Direct  steamers  from 
New  York  reach  Constanza  and  Galatz,  where  harbors 
are  good.  The  climate  is  temperate.  The  pre-war  cus- 
toms tariff  of  Eoumania  still  applies  to  imports  into 
that  country.  Duties  on  most  articles  are  assessed  on  the 
basis  of  legal  net  weight,  with  specified  tare  allowances 
fixed  in  a  schedule  of  tares  annexed  to  the  tariff.  In  view 
of  the  prevailing  conditions  at  the  present  time  the  con- 
sular regulations  and  those  of  the  steamship  companies 
should  be  investigated  and  followed.  Special  or  unusual 
forms  of  packing  are  only  called  for  when  specifically  or- 
dered by  importers. 

Russia. — All  hazards  of  transportation  should  be 
guarded  against,  and  considering  the  situation  in  Kussia 
at  present,  each  shipment  should  have  its  own  special 
rules.  The  climate  of  Russia  may,  in  a  general  way,  be 
compared  to  that  of  the  northern  United  States  and 
Canada.  In  normal  times  port  facilities  and  interior  rail- 
way services  were  satisfactory,  and  special  forms  of 
packing  only  required  consideration  when  specially 
ordered.    Under  the  former  Russian  tariff,  merchandise, 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    295 

with  few  exceptions,  was  dutiable  on  the  basis  of  legal 
net  weight,  with  specific  tare  allowances  fixed  by  a  sched- 
ule annexed  to  the  tariff. 

Shippers  to  Kussia  can  obtain  information  with  re- 
gard to  current  conditions  from  the  American  Russian 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  New  York  City.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  new  states  of  Lithuania,  Esthonia, 
Latvia,  and  the  Eepublic  of  Georgia  will  in  all  probability 
institute  their  own  tariffs.  With  respect  to  the  Republic 
of  Georgia  it  is  stated  that,  effective  March  1,  1920,  the 
provisions  of  the  former  Russian  customs  tariff  apply, 
the  rate  of  duty  having  been  increased  ten  times.  The 
pre-war  Russian  tariff  without  additional  taxation  ap- 
plies at  the  present  time  to  goods  imported  into  Armenia. 
The  Republic  of  Azerbaijan  assesses  a  gross  tax  of  5 
roubles  per  poud  (poud  =  36.1128  pounds)  on  all  classes 
of  merchandise.  The  customs  administration  at  Batum, 
according  to  latest  information  obtainable,  applies  to  the 
pre-war  Russian  tariff,  with  an  increase  of  10  per  cent 
in  the  rates  of  that  tariff. 

Salvador. — Transportation  conditions  in  Salvador  are 
exceedingly  primitive  and  all  hazards  must  be  guarded 
against.  The  climate  of  Salvador  is  tropical.  Packages 
may  be  marked  with  either  stencil  or  brush  and  must  bear 
consecutive  numbers,  but  need  not  show  weight.  Duties 
on  merchandise  are  levied  on  the  basis  of  gross  weight, 
hence  lightness  of  the  package  is  highly  desirable,  com- 
bined, however,  with  solidity  and  strength.  There  is  no 
penalty  on  mixed  packing,  but  the  merchandise  so  packed 
should  be  properly  declared.  The  steamship  companies 
make  certain  regulations  with  respect  to  packing  and 
marking  which  should  be  investigated  and  followed. 
There  are  likewise  strict  provisions  governing  the  im- 
portation of  pharmaceutical  preparations,  about  which 
information  can  be  obtained  from  the  consul  of  Salvador, 
New  York  City. 

Goods  receive  extremely  rough  handling.  They  are 
either  transhipped  at  Panama  or  come  in  direct  boats 
via  San  Francisco.    In  the  former  case  there  is  extra 


296  EXPORT  PACKING 

handling,  with  increased  chance  of  breakage;  and  cargo 
is  always  veiy  carelessly  treated  at  the  ports  of  Acajutla 
or  La  Libertad  from  the  ship  to  the  lighters.  Extra  pro- 
tection against  pilfering  and  extra  waterproofing  against 
exposure  to  sea  spray  and  torrential  rains  are  strongly 
recommended. 

With  reference  to  parcel  post  shipments,  it  is  stated 
that  only  soft  articles  that  will  stand  a  large  amount  of 
squeezing  and  mashing,  or  goods  shipped  in  strong 
wooden  boxes  can  withstand  the  treatment  given  them  in 
Salvador. 

Siam. — There  are  no  official  restrictions  with  regard 
to  shipments  to  Siam  excepting  that  numbers,  quanti- 
ties, values,  and  net  weight,  that  is,  the  weight  of  the 
goods  excluding  that  of  the  container  and  of  other 
packing,  must  be  stated  on  the  invoice.  Some  of  the 
steamship  companies  require  that  the  gross  weight  in 
pounds  should  be  marked  on  packages,  and  these  and 
other  regulations  should  be  carefully  investigated.  Pack- 
ing should  be  of  the  most  substantial  character  in  order 
to  withstand  tropical  climate,  discharging  to  lighters, 
bad  transportation  conditions  in  the  interior,  and  tran- 
shipment of  cargo  en  route. 

Spain. — Mild  and  temperate  climatic  conditions  and 
good  railway  transportation  facilities  offer  no  hazards. 
There  are  direct  steamers  from  the  United  States  to  a 
few  ports;  to  reach  others  transhipment  is  necessary. 
Landing  conditions  are  satisfactory ;  in  most  cases  thor- 
oughly modern.  Duty  on  merchandise  is,  with  certain 
exceptions,  assessed  on  the  basis  of  net  weight,  which  in- 
cludes the  weight  of  the  immediate  packing  and  the  con- 
tainer in  which  the  goods  are  sold  at  retail.  There  are 
certain  specified  tare  allowances  fixed  by  the  tariff.  There 
are  no  official  restrictions  as  to  marks  or  weights,  but  cer- 
tain regulations  have  been  made  by  the  various  steam- 
ship companies,  which  should  be  investigated  and  fol- 
lowed. 

Straits  Settlements. — Consular  regulations  are  those 
of  the  United  Kingdom.    The  Straits  Settlements  is  prac- 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING   297 

tically  a  free-trade  colony.  Goods  should  be  packed  to 
withstand  highly  tropical  climate,  Singapore  lying  only 
a  few  miles  from  the  Equator.  The  regulations  of  the 
steamship  companies  should  be  investigated.  Direct 
steamers  take  freight  from  our  Atlantic  and  Pacific  ports 
to  Singapore  and  Penang.  Landing  by  lighters  is  not 
unusually  hazardous  and  no  exceptional  packing  is  called 
for,  in  the  absence  of  special  instructions  from  con- 
signees. Consuls  of  Great  Britain  may  give  information 
regarding  the  Straits  Settlements. 

Sweden. — Neither  climatic  nor  transportation  condi- 
tions offer  any  special  difficulties.  Sweden  may  be  com- 
pared to  our  own  northern  states  or  to  Canada,  both  as 
to  climate  and  as  to  railway  and  canal  facilities.  There 
are  direct  steamship  connections  with  New  York  and  port 
conditions  are  modern  and  good.  Duty  in  most  instances 
is  assessed  on  the  basis  of  legal  net  weight,  which  in  cer- 
tain specific  instances  includes  the  weight  of  the  im- 
mediate container,  and  tare  allowances  are  specified  by 
a  schedule  annexed  to  the  tariff.  All  goods  imported 
into  Sweden  must  plainly  indicate  the  country  of  origin, 
and  the  markings  must  be  of  such  a  nature  that  their 
erasure  would  injure  the  goods.  Most  of  the  steamship 
companies  require  that  gross  weights  in  pounds  must  be 
marked  on  the  packages. 

Switzerland. — There  are  no  official  restrictions  with 
regard  to  marks  or  weights,  but  certain  of  the  steamship 
companies  require  that  the  gross  weight  in  pounds  ap- 
pear on  the  packages.  Climatic  conditions,  like  our  own, 
and  transportation  by  excellent  railway  facilities  offer  no 
difficulties.  Merchandise,  in  most  instances,  is  subject 
to  duty  assessed  on  the  basis  of  gross  weight,  a  certain 
percentage  being  added  to  the  dutiable  weight  when 
articles  are  imported  without  their  usual  containers.  As 
Switzerland  has  no  seaports,  imports  are  received 
through  Dutch,  Belgian,  German,  French  or  Italian  ports 
and  railway  connections. 

Tripoli  and  Cyrenaica  (Libya). — The  customs  duties 
assessed  in  Tripoli  are  ad  valorem.     Italian  consular 


298  EXPORT  PACKING 

regulations  apply.  Packing  should  be  able  to  withstand 
hazards  of  hot,  tropical  climate  and  primitive  landing  and 
interior  transportation.  The  regulations  of  the  steam- 
ship companies  should  be  investigated.  There  are  no 
direct  sailings  from  the  United  States  and  freight  must 
be  transhipped  en  route.  An  Italian  colony;  informa- 
tion may  be  secured  from  Italian  consuls. 

Tunis. — The  customs  tariff  of  Tunis  assesses  duties 
based  on  both  gross  and  net  weight.  Consular  regula- 
tions are  those  of  France.  The  regulations  of  the  steam- 
ship companies  should  be  investigated.  Packing  should 
be  such  as  to  withstand  hazards  of  unsatisfactory  trans- 
portation and  tropical  climate.  Transhipment  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to  reach  Tunis,  as  there  is  no  direct  steam- 
ship connection  with  United  States  ports.  Information 
about  Tunis  should  be  sought  from  French  consuls. 

Turkey. — Packages  should  be  able  to  withstand  every 
hazard  of  transportation,  which  in  many  sections  is  prim- 
itive. Climate  ranges  from  temperate  to  hot,  according 
to  locality,  that  of  Constantinople  and  Smyrna  being 
similar  to  that  of  Washington.  There  are  no  official  re- 
strictions on  marks  or  weights,  but  certain  of  the  steam- 
ship companies  require  that  the  gross  weight  in  pounds 
appear  upon  packages.  There  are  direct  steamers  from 
New  York  to  the  principal  ports.  Landing  always  by 
lighter.  Political  and  social  conditions  in  Turkey  at 
present  are  such  that  each  shipment  should  receive  special 
investigation,  but  no  extraordinary  packing  is  demanded, 
except  wheif  special  instructions  may  be  received  from 
importers. 

Uganda.— The  tariff  of  Uganda,  a  British  colony,  pro- 
vides for  ad  valorem  duties  of  10  per  cent  on  all  but  cer- 
tain specified  goods.  Goods  should  be  packed  in  such  a 
way  as  to  withstand  tropical  heat  and  all  transportation 
hazards,  including  transhipment  en  route.  There  are 
no  official  restrictions  as  to  marks  and  weights,  but  the 
regulations  of  the  steamship  companies  should  be  in- 
vestigated. Information  about  Uganda  should  be  sought 
from  British  consuls. 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING    299 

Union  of  South  Africa. — The  tariff  of  the  Union  of 
South  Africa  assesses  ad  valorem  duties  in  all  but  a  few 
instances.  Although  terminal  conditions  and  transporta- 
tion are,  in  the  main,  satisfactory,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  in  order  to  reach  the  Union  of  South  Africa 
goods  must  pass  through  the  torrid  zone,  and  due  allow- 
ance must  be  made  for  this  in  packing.  The  climate  of 
South  Africa  is  warmly  temperate.  The  regulations 
made  by  various  steamship  companies  should  be  investi- 
gated and  followed.  Direct  steamers  from  New  York 
reach  the  principal  ports.  There  are  no  official  restric- 
tions as  to  marks  and  weights.  To  comply  with  the  terms 
of  the  anti-dumping  law  in  force  in  the  Union  of  South 
Africa,  a  special  declaration  is  required  to  be  appended 
to  the  commercial  invoice,  showing  in  detail,  among  other 
things,  the  cost  of  packing.  Information  may  be  obtained 
from  British  consulates. 

United  Kingdom. — Transportation,  landing  and  cli- 
matic conditions  of  the  United  Kingdom  are  similar  to 
those  in  the  United  States.  There  are  numerous  direct 
sailings,  and  ordinary  precautions  as  to  overseas  pack- 
ages suffice.  There  are  no  official  restrictions  with  re- 
spect to  weights.  The  United  Kingdom  is,  in  principle, 
a  free-trade  country,  but  many  articles  are  dutiable. 
Duties  are  levied  on  coffee,  chicory,  playing  cards, 
chloroform  and  certain  other  chemical  products,  fruit, 
sugar,  matches,  motor  cars,  musical  instruments,  spirits, 
including  perfumery,  wine  and  beer,  confectionery,  con- 
densed milk,  tea,  tobacco,  table  waters,  and  shoe  blacking. 
Most  of  the  duties  levied  on  these  articles  are  specific, 
although  there  are  a  few  ad  valorem  duties.  The  pro- 
visions of  the  Merchandise  Marks  Act  governing  the 
marking  of  goods  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  are 
strict  and  should  be  investigated  by  the  exporter  to  that 
country.  The  official  summary  of  the  essential  pro- 
visions of  this  act  is  quoted  below;  further  information 
with  respect  to  it  can  be  obtained  from  British  consular 
officials. 

**1.    Foreign  goods  imported  into  the  United  King- 


300  EXPORT  PACKING 

dom  which  do  not  bear  any  marks  whatever,  either  on 
the  goods  themselves  or  on  the  packages  or  wrappers 
containing  them,  are  not  required  to  bear  any  qualifying 
statement  or  indication  such  as  ^Made  Abroad,'  'Made 
in  Japan,'  etc. 

**2.  Foreign  manufactured  goods  bearing  a  name  or 
trade  mark  being,  or  purporting  to  be,  the  name  or  trade 
mark  of  a  manufacturer,  dealer,  or  trader,  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  must  have  that  name  or  trade  mark  accom- 
panied by  a  definite  indication  of  the  country  of  origin 
of  the  goods.  The  name  of  the  country  is  a  sufficient  in- 
dication, without  the  words  'Made  in,'  if  name  or  trade 
mark  only  appears,  e.  g.,  'John  Smith,  Holland,'  would 
be  sufficient.  If  such  a  mark  as  'John  Smith,  Sheffield,' 
is  used,  then  the  qualification  must  be  'Made  in  Holland' 
or  similar  wording. 

"3.  If  foreign  imported  goods  bear  the  name  of  a 
place  identical  with,  or  a  colorable  imitation  of,  the  name 
of  a  place  in  the  United  Kingdom,  the  name  should  be 
accompanied  by  the  name  of  the  country  in  which  the 
place  is  situated.  Thus,  Boston,  in  Massachusetts,  should 
be  accompanied  by  the  name  'United  States'  or  by  the 
initials 'U.  S.  A.' 

"4.  If  a  trade  description  includes  the  name  of  a 
place,  and  the  goods  on  which  it  appears  are  not  the  pro- 
duce of  that  place,  or  of  the  country  in  which  it  is  situated, 
the  trade  description  must  be  accompanied  by  a  state- 
ment indicating  the  actual  country  of  production.  For 
instance,  a  wine,  the  produce  of  California,  and  described 
as  'Sherry'  (which  word  is  derived  from  the  name  of  the 
place  Xeres)  should  have  that  description  accompanied 
by  the  statement  'Produced  in  California,'  or  should  be 
described  as  California  Sherry.  An  exception  to  this 
rule  is  made  in  cases  where  the  name  of  a  place  as  a  trade 
description  is  indicative  merely  of  a  character  of  the 
goods,  and  is  not  calculated  to  mislead  as  the  country  of 
origin.  Thus,  such  a  description  as  'Brussels  Carpet'  or 
'Portland  Cement'  need  not  be  accompanied  by  a  state- 
ment of  the  country  of  actual  production,  unless  as  re- 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING   301 

quired  under  paragraph  2  above. ' '  Other  provisions  are : 
^*5.  Trade  descriptions  in  the  English  language  ap- 
plied to  foreign  goods  imported  for  home  use  from 
non-English  speaking  countries,  are  not  regarded  as  in- 
dications that  the  goods  are  of  British  or  Irish  origin, 
unless  the  officers  have  good  ground  for  considering  that 
such  trade  descriptions  are  specially  designed  to  convey, 
and  do  in  fact  convey,  an  impression  of  British  or  Irish 
origin  for  the  goods. 

*^  Trade  descriptions  on  imported  goods  in  a  foreign 
language,  which  is  not  that  of  the  country  from  which  the 
goods  are  imported,  must  be  accompanied  by  a  statement 
of  the  actual  country  of  production  of  the  goods,  e.  g., 
*Made  in  Portugal.' 

**6.  As  regards  watches,  any  mark  on  the  case  is 
deemed  to  extend  to  the  watch.  If  therefore  a  watch  case 
is  made  in  this  country  (United  Kingdom)  and  bears  any 
statement  or  indication  of  such  origin  (as,  for  instance, 
a  British  assay  mark)  and  the  watch  itself  is  made  in 
Switzerland,  then  there  must  appear  either 

(a)  in  close  proximity  to  the  assay  mark  a  con- 
spicuous statement  that  the  watch  is  of 
foreign  make ;  or 

(b)  on  the  dial  and  also  on  the  top  or  bottom 
place  of  the  movement,  visible  between  the 
bridges,  an  indelible  statement  or  indica- 
tion that  the  watch  is  of  Swiss  origin. 

**7.  All  qualifying  statements,  or  indications,  must 
be  distinct,  in  equally  conspicuous  characters  with,  and 
in  close  proximity  to,  the  marks  they  are  intended  to 
qualify. 

*^8.  Marks  on  samples  or  patterns,  whether  of  British 
or  foreign  manufacture,  are  not  required  to  be  accom- 
panied by  any  qualification,  provided  such  samples  or 
patterns  are  valueless  in  themselves,  do  not  form  whole 
or  complete  articles,  and  can  be  readily  distinguished  as 
samples  or  patterns." 

Uruguay.— Terminal,  climatic,  and  interior  transpor- 
tation conditions  offer  no  difficulties.     The  climate  is 


302  EXPORT  PACKING 

warm  but  temperate.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  goods  shipped  to  Uruguay  must  pass  through  the 
tropical  belt.  Direct  steamers  connect  New  York  and 
Montevideo. 

Weights  need  not  be  marked  on  the  packages.  Marks, 
numbers,  or  other  signs  on  packages  must  be  clearly  and 
legibly  stamped  in  indelible  ink.  In  case  the  markings 
are  not  clear  packages  will  be  detained  at  the  customs 
house.  Goods  usually  sold  by  weight  or  measure  must 
be  marked  according  to  the  metric  system,  and  goods  sold 
in  pounds,  bundles  or  sealed  packages  should  have  the 
net  measure  or  weight  stamped  on  the  wrapping. 

Of  the  articles  dutiable  by  weight,  some  pay  duty  on 
gross  weight,  some  on  legal  net  weight,  and  in  some  in- 
stances the  weight  of  the  inner  receptacle  is  included  in 
the  weight  subject  to  duty.  The  tariff  does  not  provide 
a  penalty  for  mixed  packing. 

Venezuela. — Packages  must  be  most  carefully  pre- 
pared to  withstand  all  transportation  hazards.  There 
are  direct  steamers  from  New  York  to  the  principal  ports. 
Freight  is  sometimes  landed  on  wharves,  sometimes  by 
lighters.  Eailways  connect  Caracas  with  its  port,  La 
Guaira,  and  also  with  Valencia  and  Puerto  Cabello. 
River  boats  tranship  goods  up  the  Orinoco  (usually  via 
Trinidad)  to  Ciudad  Bolivar.  Apart  from  these  facili- 
ties transportation  is  almost  wholly  by  muleback.  How- 
ever, little  attention  need  as  a  rule  be  paid  to  special 
packing  for  such  transport,  as  practically  all  goods  for 
remote  destinations  are  repacked  by  the  large  merchants 
in  the  ports.  The  climate  varies  from  tropical  along  the 
coast  and  in  the  Orinoco  districts  to  mild  in  Caracas  and 
the  highlands.  A  considerable  transit  trade  is  carried  on 
via  Maracaibo  for  a  section  of  Colombia,  involving  diffi- 
cult and  primitive  transport  methods. 

The  customs  tariff  of  Venezuela  assesses  duties  on  the 
basis  of  gross  weight,  and  if  articles  subject  to  different 
rates  of  duty  are  packed  in  the  same  container,  the  entire 
shipment  is  subject  to  duty  at  the  rate  assessed  on  the 
highest  taxed  article  so  included.    Great  care  has  to  be 


CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS  AND  PACKING   303 

observed  in  preparing  all  papers  for  Venezuela,  as  the 
customs  officers  are  extremely  exacting. 

The  pure  food  regulations  of  Venezuela,  as  well  as 
those  referring  to  medicines  and  alcoholic  beverages,  are 
stringent  and  should  be  carefully  investigated. 

Zanzibar. — The  tariff  of  Zanzibar  prescribes  an  ad 
valorem  duty  of  71/2  per  cent  on  all  goods  with  certain 
specified  exceptions.  In  the  absence  of  regular  direct 
steamship  lines,  freight  is  usually  transhipped  en  route. 
Goods  are  discharged  into  lighters,  often  through  a  heavy 
surf.  Packing  should  be  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand 
hazards  of  transportation  and  tropical  climate,  and  thor- 
oughly waterproofed.  There  are  no  official  restrictions 
as  to  marks  or  weights,  but  the  regulations  of  the  steam- 
ship companies  should  be  investigated.  Information  re- 
garding Zanzibar  may  be  sought  from  British  consulates. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  PACKING  OF  AUTOMOBILES  AND 
MOTOR  TRUCKS 

THE  packing  of  automobiles  has  one  angle  that  is  not 
present  with  most  classes  of  machinery,  and  that 
is  the  protection  of  the  costly  coachwork  which  is 
such  an  important  matter,  both  when  the  machine  is  for 
resale  and  when  the  satisfaction  of  the  customer  who 
orders  direct  is  at  stake.  Injury  to  the  coachwork  will 
either  necessitate  patching  up  or  repainting,  and  there 
are  comparatively  few  places,  except  the  large  cities  in 
the  countries  of  most  advanced  technical  development, 
where  this  can  be  done  satisfactorily.  The  coachwork 
of  the  car  may  be  disfigured  in  many  ways ;  by  the  car 
working  loose  in  the  case,  by  improper  placing  of  the 
wheels  or  by  so  placing  them  that  they  work  loose  and 
come  in  contact  with  the  coachwork,  by  faulty  protection, 
and  so  on. 

Poor  adjustment  of  the  car  within  the  case,  however, 
may  do  far  more  damage  to  the  car  than  merely  denting 
or  scraping  the  body,  for  a  car  that  swings  inside  the  case 
is  likely  to  break  the  fenders,  lamps  and  other  fragile 
parts.  The  car  must  also  be  well  protected  against  mois- 
ture and  humidity,  and  there  should  be  no  doubt  of  the 
perfect  dryness  of  the  case  before  it  is  shipped.  A  case 
that  is  not  made  of  well-seasoned  lumber  or  that  is  con- 
structed of  damp  wood,  will  cause  mold  to  form  and  pro- 
duce serious  damage  to  upholstery  and  top  covering. 

It  is  probable  that  the  most  important  part  of  the 
automobile  case  is  the  base,  and  particular  attention 
should  be  given  to  this  portion  of  the  export  package. 
The  underframe  should  be  of  very  solid  construction, 
with  longitudinal  beams  extending  the  full  length  of  the 
case,  one  on  each  side  and  one  in  the  middle.    The  cross 

304 


THE  PACKING  OF  AUTOMOBILES         305 

pieces  fixed  to  the  beams  should  be  adequate  in  every  way 
to  insure  a  perfectly  rigid  base  when  the  car  is  fastened 
down.  The  upper  structure  must  be  strong  enough  to 
withstand  a  severe  shock  from  above  or  from  the  side, 
and  every  case  should  be  provided  with  skids  so  that  the 
package  will  never  rest  flat  on  the  ground.  If  the  skids 
are  not  sufficiently  high  it  is  very  probable  that  water  will 
enter  the  case  and  do  serious  damage,  but  with  proper 
skids  even  though  water  should  enter  along  the  base  it 
would  quickly  drain  otiP. 

Examples  of  Actual  Practice. — A  large  manufacturing 
company  describes  its  export  packing  as  follows,  supply- 
ing a  photograph  which  is  reproduced  on  page  307.  *^The 
finished  crate  contains  a  seven-passenger  touring  car 
to  be  shipped  to  South  Africa.  We  would  call  attention 
to  the  spare  wheel  bolted  on  supports  above  the  back  seat. 
This  car  was  covered  with  cheese  cloth,  thoroughly  pro- 
tecting the  entire  body  from  dust  and  other  like  perils, 
and,  of  course,  all  metal  parts  were  thoroughly  coated 
with  grease  to  prevent  rusting  or  tarnishing  in  transit. 
Spark  plugs  are  taken  out  and  the  motor  itself  is  thor- 
oughly greased.  The  plugs  are  wrapped  in  oiled  paper, 
and  the  tools  are  also  well  oiled  and  wrapped  in  similar 
paper.  The  car  rests  on  II/2"  matched  lumber  covered 
with  tar  paper.  The  car  is  run  on  this  bottom,  the  wheels 
taken  off  and  secure  blocking  used.  The  framing  of  the 
case  is  then  made,  covered  with  tarred  paper  and  sealed 
with  matched  lumber,  and  the  top  is  covered  with  rubber 
roofing.    All  joints  are  cemented  and  weather  stripped.^' 

Another  manufacturing  company  writes,  in  sending 
photographs  reproduced  on  page  308:  **For  the  bottom 
of  the  case  we  use  three  pieces  of  3"  x  6"  timbers  with  a 
cross  layer  of  1"  tongued  and  grooved  lumber  with  a  layer 
of  Safepack  waterproof  paper,  then  four  1"  boards  are 
laid  lengthwise,  two  on  each  side,  giving  a  double  bottom 
for  the  support  of  the  car.  The  3"  x  6"  timbers  raise  the 
case  above  the  ground  so  that  even  if  allowed  to  stand  in 
the  open  and  in  surface  water  no  moisture  gets  into  the 
case.  ♦ 


306  EXPORT  PACKING 

^'The  framework  of  our  case  is  made  of  2"  x  4" 
Canadian  spruce,  with  diagonal  bracing  to  prevent  the 
case  from  being  knocked  out  of  shape.  We  consider 
spruce  greatl}^  superior  to  yellow  pine  and  N.  C.  pine  of 
the  same  dimensions,  as  it  is  stronger  and  will  not  split 
when  heavy  nails  are  driven  into  it.  The  framework  is 
covered  with  Safepack  waterproof  paper,  followed  by  a 
layer  of  1"  tongued  and  grooved  lumber  nailed  tightly 
together. 

**The  car  is  supported  on  jacks  at  the  four  hubs,  and 
is  also  held  down  at  the  four  hubs,  besides  being  braced 
at  each  end.  All  bright  parts  and  the  motor  are  slushed 
to  prevent  rusting  and  the  oxidation  of  nickeled  parts. 
The  top  is  removed  and  carefully  wrapped  in  paper.  The 
windshield  is  also  removed  and  packed  in  a  separate 
case,  securely  fastened  inside  of  the  case.^* 

A  well-known  automobile  manufacturing  company 
comments  as  follows  on  photographs  which  it  transmits 
and  which  are  reproduced  on  pages  311  and  312:  *^The 
cases  in  which  our  cars  are  packed  for  export  shipment 
are  standardized  in  every  detail  just  as  are  the  cars  which 
they  contain.  The  entire  case  is  lined  with  tar  paper  to 
prevent  damage  from  water  or  leakage  of  other  cargo  on 
shipboard.  The  top  is  covered  with  tar  paper  and  the 
entire  package  iron  strapped.  Our  case  measures  274 
cubic  feet,  weighing  2,580  pounds.  Attention  should  be 
called  to  the  method  of  placing  the  windshield  in  a  frame 
on  the  bottom  of  the  case  beneath  the  rear  of  the  top. 

*^  Partly  knocked  down  touring  cars  are  shipped  in 
cases  measuring  160  cubic  feet  and  weighing  2,320 
pounds.  The  two  photographs  on  page  312  illustrate 
the  packing  and  how  the  various  units  are  placed  in  the 
case.  Note  that  the  tires  are  placed  around  the  frame 
in  order  to  make  theft  impossible  without  cutting  the 
tires  or  tearing  the  case  entirely  apart.  Unbroken  paper 
wrapping  prevents  dust  from  accumulating  and  is  used 
in  addition  to  the  tar  paper.'' 

An  organization  in  New  York  which  does  a  great  deal 
of  automobile  packing  for  export  firms  supplies  several 


307 


Courtesy  of  Haynes  Automobile  Co. 
Method  of  Beginning  Automobile  Case. 
Bottom  of  case  is  made  of  3  pieces  S"  x  6"  cross  layer  of  1"  tongued  and  grooved 
lumber,  then  layer  of  waterproof  paper,  finally  2  one-inch  boards  on  each  side. 


Courtesy  of  Hayncs  Automobile  Co. 
-.  :.       A  Partially  Completed  Case. 
Note  eafcellent  end  bracing,  firmly  braced  jatcks  supporting  hubs,  and  method 
of  packing  windshield  and  top. 


THE  PACKING  OF  AUTOMOBILES         309 

accompanying  photographs,  reproduced  on  page  315,  de- 
scribing its  operations  as  follows:  ^^The  car  is  first 
measured  and  a  platform  built  slightly  larger  than  the 
greatest  length  and  width  of  the  car.  This  platform  is 
built  on  three  2"  x  4"  skids  with  1"  lumber  nailed  cross- 
wise. The  car  is  then  moved  on  the  platform  and  the 
wheels  removed.  The  axles  are  firmly  placed  so  that  the 
car  cannot  shift  in  either  direction.  All  metal  parts  are 
well  greased  to  prevent  rusting. 

^'Photograph  shows  method  of  securing  bumper  in 
rear ;  two  of  the  wheels  have  been  fastened  to  the  floor  of 
the  case,  the  floating  axle  having  been  removed  and 
firmly  secured  at  right  angles  to  the  axle  housing.  The 
windshield  is  removed  and  laid  on  the  rear  seat,  the 
cushion  being  turned  upside  down  and  placed  on  top  of 
the  shield.    The  top  is  folded  down  over  the  front  seat. 

**The  wheels  are  bolted  to  the  sides  of  the  case,  one 
wheel  to  each  side  and  two  wheels  to  the  floor.  We  use 
a  framework  of  2"  x  3"  material,  including  uprights  and 
cross  beams  on  the  roof.  We  think  our  method  as  shown 
in  the  photographs  is  excellent  as  preventing  forward  and 
backward  movement  as  well  as  upward  movement.  The 
sides  of  the  case  are  lined  with  waterproof  paper,  the 
sides  and  roof  made  of  tongued  and  grooved  %"  stuff 
nailed  to  the  frame  of  2"  x  3"  stuff  placed  about  4  feet 
apart.**  In  this  connection  it  is  to  be  noted  that  most 
automobile  manufacturers  use  considerably  heavier  ma- 
terial for  uprights,  corner  posts,  etc.,  as  will  be  observed 
from  other  specifications  included  in  this  chapter. 

The  National  Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Inc., 
New  York  City,  has  recently  published  a  booklet  giving 
the  results  of  an  investigation  of  export  packing  of  auto- 
mobiles.   The  conclusions  reached  are  as  follows : 

**As  the  result  of  a  careful  investigation  into  the 
methods  used  by  member  automobile  and  truck  manufac- 
turers in  packing  automobiles  and  trucks  for  export  ship- 
ment, your  committee  has  to  report  that  most  of  the 
manufacturers  are  working  along  the  same  lines.  The 
methods  used  in  the  different  factories  are  similar,  and 


310  EXPORT  PACKING 

the  variations  consist  in  the  way  details  are  worked  out. 

**Boxmg  Passenger  Cars.— On  account  of  the  scarcity 
of  ocean  space  for  shipping  automobiles,  the  size  of  all 
automobile  cases  has  been  greatly  decreased  during  the 
last  two  years.  While  some  manufacturers  have  made 
more  progress  in  this  direction  than  others,  the  results 
show  that  considerable  thought  has  been  given  by  most 
of  them  to  this  very  important  matter.  Due  to  differences 
in  size  and  construction  of  the  various  cars,  it  is  possible, 
in  some  cases,  to  reduce  the  dimensions  of  the  packing 
case  more  than  in  others.  The  smaller  cars  seem  to  be 
more  adaptable  to  the  practice  of  disassembling  in  order 
to  conserve  space.  No  doubt  the  question  as  to  how  far 
this  disassembling  process  should  be  carried  has  arisen 
a  number  of  times,  taking  into  consideration  not  only  the 
cost  of  doing  this  work  at  the  factory  but  also  the  facili- 
ties of  the  dealers  to  reassemble  when  the  car  is  received 
at  its  destination.  With  a  few  exceptions,  however,  we 
find  that  the  scarcity  and  cost  of  freight  space  have  been 
the  controlling  factors.  • 

**In  our  investigation  we  find  that  practically  all  of 
the  different  manufacturers  are  building  good,  strong, 
substantial  packing  cases.  We  found,  however,  some  dif- 
ference of  opinion  as  to  the  size  of  the  timber,  the  kind  of 
lumber  to  be  used,  and  the  methods  of  supporting  the  car 
in  the  case,  which  affects  the  framework  and  the  method 
of  bracing.  Some  manufacturers  are  building  a  heavy 
framework  of  timbers  to  support  the  car  independent  of 
the  lumber  on  the  outside,  the  cars  in  this  case  being 
packed  on  their  sides  and  also  shipped  in  that  manner. 
Cars  so  packed  and  shipped  on  their  sides  can  be  placed 
on  the  ordinary  railroad  equipment  without  the  necessity 
of  decking  one  over  the  other,  in  order  to  get  a  full  car- 
load. All  cars,  however,  are  not  adaptable  to  this  method 
of  packing. 

**Most  of  the  manufacturers,  however,  depend  upon 
the  bottom  or  floor  of  the  case  as  the  supporting  frame  to 
carry  the  car.  Cases  of  this  description,  however,  are 
braced  so  that  the  cars  can  be  carried  on  the  side  without 


Courtesy  of  Ford  Motor  CuMpauy. 

Beginning  a  Standardized  Case. 

The  completed  case  measures  21k  cubic  feet  and  weighs  2,580  lbs.  The  tour- 
ing  car  is  securely  held  to  bottom  of  case  by  blocks  through  which  axles  are 
placed. 


Courtesy  of  Ford  Motor  Company. 
Partially  Completed  Standardized  Case. 
Note  method   of  placing  windshield  in  frame  beneath  rear  of  body.     Case  ia 
lined  throughout  with  tar  paper  to  prevent  damage  from  water, 

311 


fourtrsif   of  Ford   Motor  Comiiany. 
Casing  a  Partly  Knockiod  Down  Car. 
ifvthod   of  placlnu  vnrimts  unite.     Note  that  tires  arc  placed  around   frame, 
making  theft  impoaaible  unleaa  tires  are  out  or  case  is  torn  apart. 


Courtesy  of  Ford  Motor  Company. 
Partly  Finished  Case  for  Knocked  Down  Car. 
The  body,  top  and  accessories  have  been  added  to  the  units  previously  nhown. 

312 


iM^»4l^ 


THE  PACKING  OF  AUTOMOBILES         313 

damage.  The  first  method  of  packing  requires  much 
heavier  timbering,  and  results  in  more  dead  weight  on 
which  freight  must  be  paid. 

**We  found  some  variations  in  the  lumber  used  for 
outside  covering,  both  in  tfiickness,  width  and  kind  of 
lumber  used.  Thickness  varied  from  %"  to  1%",  and 
there  seems  to  be  a  variety  of  kinds  of  wood.  This,  no 
doubt,  is  due  to  the  scarcity  of  lumber  since  the  war 
began. 

^ '  The  ideal  packing  case  is  one  that  will  carry  the  car 
from  the  factory  to  the  destination  without  damage,  and 
at  the  same  time  should  be  as  light  as  possible  and  of  a 
size  to  save  as  much  freight  space  as  possible. 

**  Extent  of  Dismantling. — We  found  one  manufac- 
turer packing  five  and  seven-passenger  touring  cars  by 
removing  the  front  and  rear  fenders  and  running  boards, 
packing  the  fenders  in  the  tonneau  of  the  car  and  wrap- 
ping each  fender  separately  to  prevent  damage. 

*^In  another  instance,  both  the  front  and  rear  axles, 
in  addition  to  the  fenders  and  running  boards,  were 
removed. 

**In  some  cases,  however,  no  saving  of  space  is  accom- 
plished by  removing  the  axles.  This  depends  entirely 
upon  the  design  of  the  car,  although  it  is  the  practice  in 
some  places  to  remove  the  front  axle  or  at  least  the 
spindle  and  not  the  rear  axle,  as  the  body  often  projects 
far  enough  out  so  that  removing  the  axle  in  the  rear  is 
not  necessary. 

**A  great  saving  of  space  can  be  accomplished  by 
pressing  down  the  springs,  or  going  still  further  and  dis- 
connecting the  springs  entirely  from  the  frame,  dropping 
the  frame  down  on  the  rear  axle  housing.  This  also 
serves  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  car  rigid  and  prevents 
any  possibility  of  chafing. 

* '  Another  very  important  matter — and  one  that  often 
causes  a  great  deal  of  difficulty — is  the  proper  care  of  the 
loose  parts,  particularly  the  smaller  parts  that  are  re- 
moved when  the  car  is  packed.  We  found  that  the  small 
parts  are  usually  packed  in  a  cloth  bag,  which  is  attached 


314  EXPORT  PACKING 

to  some  prominent  part  of  the  car  or  placed  under  the 
seat.  A  few  extra  bolts,  nuts  and  cotter  pins  were  usually 
added  to  replace  those  that  might  have  been  damaged  or 
bent  in  disassembling.  All  loose  parts,  other  than  above, 
such  as  spare  rims,  wheels,  fenders,  etc.,  were  found  to 
be  substantially  held  in  position  in  some  convenient  part 
of  the  case  by  the  use  of  webbing,  bolts  or  strap  iron,  the 
top  being  wrapped  in  waterproof  paper  and  burlap  and 
packed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  damage  from 
chafing  or  from  the  vibration  of  the  case  during  shipment, 
and  the  windshields  after  removal  were  packed  in  a  sep- 
arate light  case,  which  in  turn  was  attached  to  the  in- 
terior of  the  case  at  some  convenient  point,  either  in  the 
end  or  in  the  top  of  the  case. 

** Packing  Chassis. — In  reference  to  packing  chassis, 
still  more  disassembling  is  possible  than  in  packing  com- 
plete cars.  In  most  cases,  these  units  were  stripped 
almost  completely  in  order  to  obtain  the  greatest  reduc- 
tion possible  in  the  size  of  the  case.  In  several  instances 
we  found  that  the  manufacturers  were  packing  two 
chassis  in  one  case — one  chassis  being  attached  to  the 
bottom  of  the  case,  and  the  other  one  in  a  reverse  posi- 
tion to  the  top  of  the  case.  This  seems  to  be  very  satis- 
factory in  some  instances,  particularly  with  the  smaller 
cars.  However,  it  is  possible  to  pack  chassis  units  sep- 
arately by  disassembly  in  less  space  than  the  combined 
shipment  of  two  chassis.  This,  of  course,  depends  con- 
siderably on  the  construction  of  the  chassis,  and,  for 
large  cars,  this  dual  method  of  packing,  owing  to  the  size 
and  weight  of  the  case,  does  not  seem  practical. 

**In  one  plant  we  found  that  chassis  were  being 
packed  in  what  is  known  as  a  knocked  down  condition  on 
the  basis  of  twelve  chassis  in  one  unit,  the  engines  being 
packed  in  six  cases,  two  engines  to  a  case,  and  the  frames, 
axles,  tools,  hoods,  dashes,  wheels,  front  fenders,  radia- 
tors, gas  tanks  and  miscellaneous  parts  being  packed  in 
separate  cases.  Where  large  shipments  are  to  be  con- 
sidered, we  believe  that  this  method  is  very  desirable,  as 
it  is  the  most  economical  method  of  packing,  but  unless 


Courtesy  of  P.   Brady  and  Son  Co. 
Method  op  Securing  Bumper  in  Bear. 
Two  wheels  arc  fastened  to  floor  of  case,  floating  axle  is  removed  and  secured 
at  right  angles  to  axle  housing,  windshield  remmed  and  laid  on  rear  seat,  cushion 
is  placed  upside  dtnon  above  windshield,  and  top  fnldrti  doirv   nrrr  fro^t  seat. 


Courtesy  of  P.  Brady  and  Son  Co. 

Nailing  Side  of  Case  and  Adjusting  Braces  for  Top. 

Two  wheels  are  similarly 

315 


Note  method    of  bolting  wheels  to  side  of  case 
bolted  to  base. 


316 


THE  PACKING  OF  AUTOMOBILES         31? 

a  large  volume  is  to  be  considered  we  do  not  believe  that 
it  should  be  adopted,  as  entirely  different  facilities  are 
required  which  would  break  up  the  usual  routine.  There 
is  also  the  possibility  of  some  part  of  the  shipment  going 
astray  to  be  considered. 

*' Boxing  Commercial  Cars.— In  packing  vehicles  for 
commercial  purposes,  practically  the  same  methods  are 
used  as  those  followed  with  passenger  cars,  but  on  ac- 
count of  the  size  and  weight  of  these  vehicles,  a  much 
stronger  and  larger  packing  case  is  required.  Timbers 
must  be  of  large  dimensions  to  carry  the  load  that  is 
placed  upon  them.  The  size  of  these  vehicles  makes  it 
all  the  more  necessary  to  disassemble  the  different  parts 
in  order  to  save  shipping  space,  and  we  found  in  the  fac- 
tories visited  that  this  very  important  matter  was  re- 
ceiving attention.  In  one  instance,  where  we  found  the 
packing  being  done  in  a  very  substantial  and  compact 
case,  they  were  removing  the  front  and  rear  axles  and 
packing  them  lengthwise  in  the  case,  also  removing  the 
seat  and  placing  it  back  of  the  engine.  Commercial 
vehicles  are  often  equipped  with  a  driver's  seat  provided 
with  a  hood,  which  cannot  be  taken  apart,  these  parts 
often  requiring  an  addition  of  at  least  a  cubic  ton,  and 
considerable  space  could  be  saved  in  working  out  these 
details,  so  that  they  could  be  disassembled. 

*Trotection  Against  the  Elements. — The  next  impor- 
tant feature  is  the  means  used  for  protecting  the  cars 
from  the  action  of  salt  water  or  dampness  of  any  kind. 
We  found  that  there  was  considerable  variation  in  the 
material  used  for  this  purpose  as  far  as  the  lining  of  the 
cases  is  concerned,  and  also  the  material  and  methods  of 
applying  the  rust  preventatives. 

*  *  Ordinary  wrapping  paper  is  being  used  by  some  for 
lining  the  case,  but  in  most  of  the  packing  cases  we  found 
that  waterproof  material  was  being  used.  In  addition, 
some  place  a  waterproof  covering  over  the  car.  The 
quality  of  this  material  was,  of  course,  governed  consid- 
erably by  the  value  of  the  car,  and  as  a  rule  this  feature 
of  lining  was  carried  out  satisfactorily.     Considerable 


318  EXPORT  PACKING 

saving  is  possible  in  the  selection  of  a  material  of  this 
kind,  as  widths  are  obtainable  that  can  be  used  without 
any  cutting.  This  is  particularly  important  for  the  top 
lining  of  the  case,  so  that  there  will  be  no  seams  that 
might  allow  leakage.  It  is  also  important  to  select  a 
material  for  this  purpose  that  is  free  from  any  surface 
covering  that  might  sift  off,  such  as  talc  or  sand,  and  in- 
jure the  finish  of  the  car.  This  lining  should  also  be  of 
such  a  composition  as  to  stand  considerable  heat  and  to 
be  free  from  acids  or  anything  of  that  nature  that  might 
affect  the  finish  of  the  car. 

'*Rust  Prevention. — In  regard  to  the  different  parts 
of  the  car  that  require  greasing  or  protection  from  rust, 
where  the  production  was  large  enough,  we  found  a 
spraying  system  in  service  using  a  mixture  of  vaseline 
and  gasoline,  this  material  being  generously  applied  to 
all  parts  of  the  chassis  that  might  rust.  This  is  very 
satisfactory,  requires  little  time,  and  the  material  can 
be  more  thoroughly  applied  than  by  any  other  means,  as 
it  is  possible  to  reach  parts  of  the  chassis  that  would 
otherwise  be  neglected.  This  greasing  operation  in  some 
factories  was  being  taken  care  of  by  the  application  of 
heavy  oil  or  vaseline  by  means  of  a  brush.  This  is  not 
nearly  as  desirable  as  the  spraying  process,  but  where  the 
production  is  small  it  can  be  satisfactorily  worked  out  if 
care  is  taken  to  see  that  the  work  is  thoroughly  done. 

**To  prevent  rusting  of  the  cylinder  walls,  and  the 
sticking  of  the  pistons  in  the  cylinders,  most  manufac- 
turers were  injecting  heavy  oils  in  liberal  quantities  into 
the  cylinders.  This  seems  to  be  a  necessary  precaution 
in  export  shipments. 

**In  one  place  we  found  them  using  a  material  known 
as  *coroP  to  protect  the  nickel  plated  parts.  This  ma- 
terial can  be  easijy  applied  either  with  a  brush  or  spray, 
and  forms  an  almost  transparent  film  on  the  bright  parts, 
drying  very  quickly.  It  is  very  satisfactory  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  can  be  easily  removed  with  gasoline.  Vaseline, 
however,  is  being  used  by  most  of  the  factories  to  protect 
bright  parts. 


Courtesy  of  Dodge  Bros. 
Packing  a  Car  on  its  Side. 

Thiff    method    ohviates    the   neeessity    of   deelcing    one   case    over    another  in 
shipping  carload   lotn. 


Courtesy  of  Dodge  Bros. 
Protecting  the  Chassis  from  Bust. 
A  mixture  of  vaseline  and  gasoline  is  sprayed  on  with  a  grease  gun. 

319 


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320 


THE  PACKING  OF  AUTOMOBILES         321 

**Band  Iron. — To  strengthen  the  cases  and  also  to  pre- 
vent pilfering,  band  iron  is  used  by  most  of  the  factories. 
Several  had  gone  to  great  pains  to  prevent  theft  by  using 
continuous  bands  of  this  material  around  all  the  joints 
of  the  case.  There  was  considerable  variation  in. the 
gauge  of  steel  used,  but  the  best  results  seem  to  be  ob- 
tained by  those  using  an  annealed  No.  22  gauge  band  iron 
one  inch  wide.  This  material  was  soft  enough  to  allow 
nails  to  be  driven  through  it,  but  had  the  necessary 
strength  to  allow  for  tightening. 

"Stenciling. — A  very  important  detail  in  boxing 
motor  cars  for  overseas  is  the  use  of  proper  stencils,  as 
regards  size  of  the  letters  and  figures  used,  and  also  hav- 
ing all  the  information  required  by  our  export  customers 
placed  in  a  uniform  manner  on  the  cases. 

"Letters  and  figures  at  least  ly^"  high,  showing  the 
weights  in  pounds  and  kilos  and  dimensions  of  the  case  in 
inches,  should  be  placed  on  four  sides  of  the  case.  The 
customer's  mark  and  case  number  should  also  be  shown 
on  four  sides  of  the  case  in  at  least  l^^"  letters.  (This 
is  the  longest  letter  obtainable  at  present  from  the  stand- 
ard stencil  cutting  machines.)  It  is  advisable  to  place 
these  stencils  on  the  case  in  some  regular  manner,  and 
good,  clear  stencils  can  be  obtained  by  using  stenciling 
inks  that  are  obtainable  for  this  purpose. 

"Larger  size  stencils  are  very  acceptable  if  available, 
but  in  handling  a  large  production  a  stencil  cutting  ma- 
chine is  a  necessity,  and  so  far  the  size  of  the  letters  and 
numerals  that  can  be  cut  with  these  machines  has  been 
limited  to  two  small  sizes,  %"  and  1%". 

"To  prevent  the  stencils  becoming  indistinct  due  to 
weather  effects  on  the  lumber,  shellac  can  be  used  to  cover 
that  part  of  the  case,  thus  preserving  the  stenciled  in- 
scription so  that  it  is  clear  and  distinct  at  the  destination 
of  the  case. 

"Lumber. — In  tabulating  the  information  we  have  ob- 
tained on  the  boxing  methods  used  on  twenty-two  dif- 
ferent touring  car  models  and  chassis,  we  found  that 
yellow  pine  was  most  used  for  the  lumber  of  the  case, 


322  EXPORT  PACKING 

nine  using  yellow  pine,  two  spruce,  two  a  low  grade  of 
white  pine,  and  two  North  Carolina  pine;  the  rest  used 
a  variety  of  materials.  In  the  size  of  timbers  used  for 
the  framework  and  packing  of  the  cases,  seven  were 
made  up  of  2"  x  6"  and  2"  x  4" ;  six  of  2"  x  4"  and  4"  x  4" ; 
five  of  2"  X  4"  ;  one  of  2"  x  6" ;  one  of  2"  x  6"  and  2"  x  8"; 
one  of  4"  x  6"  and  2"  x  4";  one  2"  x  6"  and  4"  x  4".  In 
reference  to  the  thickness  of  the  lumber  used  for  the  out- 
side of  the  case,  the  most  were  using  %"  matched  lumber; 
thirteen  were  using  this  thickness;  two  I14"  matched; 
four  1"  matched,  and  three  1"  unmatched  lumber. 

*' Further  Analysis  of  Methods. — As  to  the  lining  of 
the  case,  we  learned  that  all  cases  except  three  were 
being  lined  completely,  the  few  exceptions  using  a  lining 
in  the  top  of  the  case  only.  Nineteen  were  using  tar  felt 
roofing  material,  two  kraft  paper  and  one  ordinary 
wrapping  paper. 

**In  the  extent  of  disassembling,  we  found  that  all 
removed  wheels,  top  and  windshield  and  seven  plants 
also  removed  the  axles.  By  twelve  the  fenders  were 
being  removed.  The  seven  that  had  removed  the  axles 
also  had  removed  fenders  and  there  were  in  addition 
five  others  who  were  removing  fenders  who  did  not  take 
off  the  axles. 

**The  practice  of  depressing  the  springs  to  cut  down 
the  size  of  the  case  was  followed  by  the  majority  and 
some  disconnected  the  shackles,  allowing  the  frame  to 
come  down  as  low  as  possible.  One  removed  the  rear 
springs  entirely. 

*'Only  three  packed  the  cars  on  the  side;  all  others 
packed  the  cars  on  the  bottom  of  the  case. 

**  Among  the  methods  used  in  packing  chassis,  there 
were  three  where  two  chassis  were  packed  in  one  case. 
In  one  factory,  the  chassis  was  completely  disassembled, 
and  the  different  units  packed  in  separate  cases.  As 
this  report  covered  nine  different  chassis,  the  majority 
therefore  are  still  packing  chassis  singly.  In  each 
instance,  however,  the  chassis  were  disassembled  to  a 
considerable  extent,  and  in  at  least  three  instances  re- 


THE  PACKING  OF  AUTOMOBILES         323 

ferred  to  chassis  were  almost  completely  disassembled. 

'*In  regard  to  the  protection  of  cars  from  damage 
due  to  dampness  or  exposure  to  salt  water,  it  is  the  uni- 
versal practice  to  inject  heavy  oil  in  the  cylinder.  In 
one  plant,  however,  we  found  that  this  had  not  been  done 
recently,  and  that  no  trouble  had  been  reported.  The 
use  of  grease  or  vaseline  was  also  recognized  as  being 
absolutely  necessary,  and  in  several  factories  we  found 
the  chassis  parts  were  being  still  further  protected  by  a 
spraying  process,  using  vaseline  diluted  with  gasoline. 

*' Tabulated  Data. —Reference  to  the  table,  page  320, 
showing  the  wheelbase,  type  of  car,  the  dimensions  of 
the  case  and  the  number  of  cubic  feet  will  bring  out  some 
interesting  data  by  comparing  one  car  with  another. 

*'In  regard  to  packing  trucks,  all  those  considered 
were  without  bodies,  yellow  pine  and  hardwood  being 
used  about  equally,  the  outside  lumber  being  1"  and  the 
timbering  for  the  framework  varying  according  to  the 
size  of  the  chassis.  The  tar  felt  roofing  material  was 
being  used  almost  exclusively  to  line  the  cases,  heavy 
grease  was  being  used  for  rust  prevention  and  all  pro- 
tected the  cylinders  by  heavy  oil.  In  each  instance,  the 
axles  had  been  removed,  as  well  as  a  number  of  other 
parts  such  as  the  radiator,  steering  gear  and  smaller 
parts.'* 

Marking  of  Trucks. — The  High  Commission  of  a  Eu- 
ropean government,  from  its  New  York  office,  submits 
the  following:  ** Regarding  marking  of  cases  containing 
automobile  trucks,  letters  and  figures  12  inches  in  height 
have  frequently  been  used,  although  we  believe  that  clean 
cut  letters  and  figures  of  6"  or  even  3"  will  serve  every 
purpose.  On  boxes  containing  spare  parts  the  smallest 
letters  and  figures  used  for  marking  should  not  be  less 
than  2"  high.'' 


CHAPTER  XII 
SHRINKING  THE     PACKAGE 

IT  is  true  that  progressive  exporters  were  aware  of 
the  necessity  of  shrinking  or  reducing  the  export 
packages  even  before  the  war,  but  the  imperative 
command  to  do  this  came  to  us  during  the  great  struggle 
when  a  minimum  of  shipping  space  was  available  for  a 
maximum  of  goods.  The  Government  took  the  leading 
part  in  this  work,  but  the  efforts  of  the  authorities  were 
splendidly  supported  by  the  rank  and  file  of  manufac- 
turers, with  the  result  that  more  practical  and  workable 
data  were  obtained  during  this  brief  period  than  would 
probably  have  been  obtained  in  peace  times  in  many 
years. 

Like  any  other  industrial  or  scientific  problem,  export 
packing  may  be  reduced  to  comparatively  few  funda- 
mentals, and  these  fundamentals  I  believe  are  essentially 
the'preservation  of  the  goods,  economy  in  the  duties  and 
economy  in  weight  and  space.  To  repeat  this  statement  in 
another  form,  we  may  say  that  on  the  packing  depends 
the  arrival  of  the  merchandise  in  good  shape,  the  amount 
of  rail  and  ocean  freights  charged  for  the  transporta- 
tion and  in  many  cases  the  amount  of  duties  that  will 
be  assessed  at  the  port  of  entry.  When  one  considers  just 
how  much  is  at  stake,  the  subject  is  one  that  merits  and 
demands  the  closest  study,  for  the  satisfaction  of  the 
customer  absolutely  depends  on  fulfilling  these  require- 
ments and  on  the  satisfaction  of  the  customer  depends 
the  continuance  of  business  relations  and  consequently 
the  continuance  of  the  export  trade. 

The  War  Department  saved  millions  of  dollars  by 
decreasing  the  displacement  of  ocean  shipments  during 
the  war  and  we  believe  that  this  saving  is  going  to  be 
duplicated  in  the  future  in  the  export  packing  of  pro- 

324 


SHRINKING  THE  PACKAGE  325 

gressive  American  manufacturers.  As  a  rule,  ocean 
freight  rates  are  calculated  on  the  amount  of  space  occu- 
pied by  the  cargo  and  the  reduction  of  displacement  will 
not  only  result  in  reducing  freight  rates,  but  will  mean 
saving  in  freight  car  space,  in  storage  space,  in  handling 
costs  and  in  many  cases  in  the  cost  of  the  package  itself. 
Moreover,  as  duties  are  frequently  levied  on  gross  weight 
the  reduction  in  size  of  the  package  will  mean  a  reduction 
in  the  cost  of  entering  the  goods. 

The  work  done  by  the  Government  during  the  war 
will  doubtless  remain  a  standard  for  many  years  to  come, 
and  it  is  a  standard  that  should  be  kept  constantly  in 
mind  by  the  exporter  who  really  means  to  develop  an 
export  business.  The  men  working  for  the  different 
military  branches  during  the  war  succeeded  in  reducing 
the  space  occupied  by  a  five-ton  truck  from  1,100  cubic 
feet  to  260  cubic  feet;  camp  kitchens  were  crated  so  as 
to  carry  in  the  open  spaces  food  supplies  and  kitchen 
utensils;  bales  were  so  designed  that  the  burlap  cut  to 
the  exact  size  of  a  sand  bag  and  could  be  so  used  after 
the  goods  had  been  unpacked;  lathes,  drill  presses  and 
other  equipment  were  reduced  so  that  a  saving  was  made 
of  many  cubic  feet  on  each  shipment,  and  the  same  was 
true  for  gun-carriages,  airplanes,  ration-carts,  and  so 
forth.  The  same  story  could  be  told  for  practically  all 
commodities  shipped  abroad  by  the  Government  during 
this  time  and  the  work  accomplished  will  be  of  incal- 
culable value  in  the  future  to  international  American 
trade. 

How  Shrinking  May  be  Accomplished. — A  package 
may  be  shrunk  or  reduced  by  the  more  compact  packing 
of  the  contents  of  the  papkage  and  by  the  re-designing 
of  the  container  itself,  thereby  reducing  the  exterior 
dimensions.  It  would  probably  be  difficult  to  state 
exactly  whether  greater  savings  have  been  made  by 
re-designing  the  package  or  by  changing  the  disposition 
of  the  contents  in  the  package,  but  it  is  probable  that  in 
almost  every  case  something  of  the  two  principles 
entered  and  will  enter  into  every  satisfactory  export 


326  EXPORT  PACKING 

package.  There  is  still  another  method  by  which  the 
package  may  be  reduced  and  that  is  by  striving  to  reduce 
the  space  occupied  by  the  individual  items  of  the  pack- 
age and  in  many  cases  a  surprising  saving  can  be  made. 
In  a  recent  issue  of  Commerce  Reports  the  case  is  cited 
of  an  English  shipment  of  chemical  tabloids  which  were 
packed  in  lots  of  25  tabloids  in  a  very  large  bottle,  the 
empty  space  in  the  bottle  being  filled  with  raw  cotton. 
According  to  the  report  in  this  case,  the  same  sized  bottle 
could  have  held  50  tabloids  and  still  leave  sufficient  space 
for  the  absorbent  cotton,  and  as  the  duties  were  levied 
according  to  the  weight  of  bottle  and  packing  there  was 
an  appreciable  saving  that  could  well  have  been  taken 
advantage  of  by  a  competitor,  since  the  laid-down  cost 
of  a  full  bottle  would  have  been  less.  In  this  case  a  fur- 
ther advantage  of  the  full  bottle  would  have  been  that 
possible  surreptitious  extraction  of  the  tabloids  by  dis- 
honest druggists  would  have  been  largely  avoided. 

One  of  the  most  common  errors  in  packing  is  the 
failure  to  utilize  the  waste  spaces  which  are  created  by 
the  character  or  form  of  the  contents,  for  example,  filling 
the  ^^hole  in  the  doughnuf  of  the  rubber  tires  with 
cartons  containing  tubes.  Waste  of  space  may  also  be 
occasioned  by  using  containers  which  do  not  fit  the  case, 
and  this  almost  always  results  from  the  slovenly  prac- 
tice of  trying  to  make  a  one-sized  case  do  for  a  number 
of  commodities.  Fortunately  there  is  plenty  of  good 
practice  in  this  particular,  and  in  the  commodity  chap- 
ters of  this  book  more  than  one  manufacturer  has  spoken 
of  the  different  cases  used  for  different  classes  of  goods. 
If  any  manufacturer  thinks  he  is  saving  money  by  using 
the  same  sized  case  for  all  of  his  line,  let  him  consider 
all  the  costs  that  directly  result  from  this  practice  and 
the  tiny  comparative  saving  that  results  from  the  use 
of  a  one-sized  case. 

A  long  series  of  experiments  should  be  carried  on 
with  the  contents  of  cases  before  the  final  arrangement 
is  decided  on,  and  every  possible  arrangement  should  be 
tried  out  before  the  standard  case  is  designed.    Remark- 


Courtesy   of  Jndionn   Truck  Vorp. 
Method  of  Packing  Disassembled  Trucks. 
For  8peciflcation8  of  cases,  see  tewt. 


1 


Courtesy  of  Indiana  Truvk  Corp, 
Completed  Case  Containing  Disassembled  Truck. 
This  case  shoics  the  results  of  ''shrinMng  the  package." 
327 


Courtesy  of  Norton   Co. 

Cylindrical   Grinding   Machine   Assembled. 

Comparison  of  the  ouMc  contents  of  this  machine  with  that  of  the  hoxes 
in  complete  shipment  makes  evident  the  extent  to  which  the  machine  has 
heen  stripped  and  the  care  with  which  it  is  packed. 


Vourtesy   of  Norton   Co. 
Method  of  Constructing  Box. 

Note  the  excellent  construction  of  the  framework  of  the  box.  To  a  man 
experienced  in  export  packing  this  picture  tells  the  whole  story  of  careful 
packing. 

328 


.4:^.. 


SHRINKING  THE  PACKAGE  329 

able  things  were  done  by  the  Government  and  the  Forest 
Products  Laboratory  in  this  work,  and  in  the  chapter  on 
the  Forest  Products  Laboratory  we  have  mentioned  a 
few  of  the  things  accomplished,  such,  for  example,  as 
the  reduction  of  the  case  for  the  Browning  automatic 
rifle. 

Displacement  may  be  reduced  in  other  ways.  For 
example,  cleats  may  be  put  on  the  inside  of  the  cases  in- 
stead of  on  the  outside  where  the  contents  are  of  an  irreg- 
ular size  and  there  are  open  spaces  which  make  room  for 
the  cleats,  and  this  is  also  true  for  battens  that  are  placed 
around  the  middle  of  cases.  In  other  packages  steel 
strapping  will  be  found  equally  strong  as  battens  and 
the  removal  of  the  battens  from  the  case  will  effect  quite 
an  economy  in  space. 

It  is  probable  that  more  waste  takes  place  in  the 
case  of  crates  than  in  that  of  cases,  for  frequently  the 
crate  seems  to  be  built  up  without  any  particular  plan 
in  view,  the  idea  being  to  crate  the  piece  of  machinery 
or  other  commodity  and  to  build  up  the  crate  according 
to  the  more  or  less  capricious  form  of  the  goods  to  be 
packed.  It  will  be  found,  however,  in  this  case  as  in 
others  that  experimenting  will  do  a  great  deal  toward 
reducing  displacement.  Space  can  be  saved  by  proper 
designing  of  the  corner  joints,  by  proper  placing  of  the 
braces  and  so  on. 

Another  important  saving  in  displacement  is  the 
result  of  the  use  of  the  proper  woods,  and  this  question 
of  wood  strength  cannot  be  given  too  great  study  by  the 
packer.  In  the  chapter  on  the  Forest  Products  Labora- 
tory there  are  several  graphs  that  give  quite  exhaustive 
information  on  the  subject  of  different  woods,  but  the 
writer  would  not  advise  anyone  to  take  the  information 
given  in  that  chapter  as  final.  New  experiments  are 
constantly  being  made  at  the  Laboratory  and  the  pro- 
gressive packing  room  should  keep  in  close  touch  with 
these  experiments.  However,  the  point  of  this  para- 
graph is  that  important  savings  may  be  effected  by 
using,  for  example,  a  hardwood  instead  of  a  soft  wood. 


330  EXPORT  PACKING 

as  the  former  permits  the  use  of  a  thinner  wood  than  is 
the  ease  for  the  soft  wood,  and  this  all  means  a  saving 
in  displacement.  I  know  of  one  concern  that  is  now 
saving  from  three  to  four  cubic  feet  per  crate,  the  direct 
result  of  changing  the  slats  in  the  case  from  pine  to  oak. 
•  Important  savings  in  space  may  also  be  made  by  the 
use  of  steel  strapping,  corner  irons  and  other  metal 
fastenings  which  will  permit  the  use  of  a  thinner  wood. 
It  was  found  by  the  Government  that  a  box  made  of  one- 
quarter  inch  lumber  properly  strapped  would  stand  up 
as  well  as  a  box  made  of  one  inch  lumber  with  no  straps. 
Likewise  there  is  the  saving  that  may  be  obtained  by 
shipping  goods  unpacked  w^hen  such  is  possible.  Large 
machinery  particularly  can  frequently  be  shipped  with 
absolute  safety  without  packing,  and  in  Chapter  XXIV 
we  show  a  locomotive  shipment  where  the  machine  is 
shipped  without  disassembling  and  practically  without 
packing. 

A  large  manufacturer  of  motor  trucks  submits  photo- 
graphs on  page  327  illustratiing  its  own  practice  in 
*^ shrinking*'  the  package.  This  company  ships  its  trucks 
of  varying  capacity  in  cases  as  follows : 


Cajx 

jciiy 

Net  Weight 

Gross  Weight 

Dimensions 

Cubic  Feet 

IJ^ton 

3,582 

5,030 

45' 

'X45'' 

X  16'9'' 

220 

2 

« 

4,850 

6,412 

48" 

'x45" 

X  18'3" 

27.'-) 

2H 

(1 

5,113 

6,675 

48* 

'x45" 

xlQ'S" 

28^ 

^Vi 

u 

6,320 

8,170 

48* 

'x45" 

x20'3'' 

304 

6 

u 

8,100 

10,250 

51" 

'x48" 

x21'9'' 

370 

The  smallest  chassis,  114-ton,  is  boxed  on  two  sills 
4''x6",  forming  the  bottom  of  the  crate,  which  is 
securely  bolted  and  anchored.  For  the  chassis  of  the 
2  and  2i/2-ton  trucks,  4''x8"  sills  are  used,  and  for  the 
chassis  of  the  larger  sizes,  31/2  and  5-ton  trucks,  4"xl0". 
Tongued  and  grooved  matched  lumber  is  used  for  top, 
bottom  and  sides,  running  up  and  down  and  crosswise, 
not  lengthwise.  For  the  platform  of  all  chassis  1%"  ma- 
terial, dressed  on  one  side,  is  used.  About  5  lbs.  of  No. 
12-penny  common  nails  are  required  for  each  platform. 
For  the  top  of  crates  for  all  chassis  matched  or  ship  lap 


SHRINKING  THE  PACKAGE  331 

lumber  is  used,  the  braces  being  of  %"x6"  stuff.  About 
3  lbs.  of  6-penny  common  nails  and  about  21/2  lbs.  of 
8-penny  common  nails  are  used  for  one  top.  The  sides  of 
crates  for  all  models  are  made  of  %"  matched  material, 
the  top  tie  being  of  iy2"x3"  stuff,  the  bottom  tie  of  Vs'x6'' 
stuff  and  the  braces  of  y8"x6"  lumber.  About  3  lbs.  of 
6-penny  common  nails  are  used  for  each  side,  or  6  lbs.  for 
each  crate ;  about  1  lb.  8-penny  common  nails  are  used  for 
each  side,  or  2  lbs.  for  each  crate.  The  ends  of  crates  for 
all  models  are  made  of  Ys"  matched  or  ship  lap  lumber. 
The  top  tie  is  made  of  iy2"x3"  stuff,  the  bottom  tie  of 
%"x6",  and  the  braces  of  y8"x6".  About  Vs  lb.  of  6-penny 
common  nails  are  used  for  each  end,  or  1  lb.  for  each 
crate ;  about  y2  lb.  of  8-penny  common  nails  are  used  for 
each  end  or  about  1  lb.  for  each  crate. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  PACKING  OF  MACHINERY 

THE  American  machinery  industry,  with  justice,  is 
and  has  been  considered  one  of  the  great  as  well 
as  one  of  the  model  trades  of  the  world,  and  while 
the  volume  of  export  business  during  the  war  was  im- 
mense, the  industry  by  no  means  owes  its  development  or 
its  present  position  to  war  demand  and  urgency.  The 
great  machine  tool  manufacturers  of  this  country,  for  ex- 
ample, have  always  occupied  a  high  position  in  the  tech- 
nical trades  of  the  whole  world  and  the  fact  that  more 
than  $58,507,942  worth  of  this  sort  of  machinery  was  ex- 
ported in  1919  is  merely  a  recognition  of  merit.  It  is  in- 
teresting to  note  that  in  many  cases  where  tools  were 
made  for  foreign  governments  under  the  most  rigid  spe- 
cifications, the  work  turned  out  produced  the  highest  com- 
mendation from  the  inspectors.  The  general  subject  of 
the  packing  of  machinery  for  export  has  already  been 
thoroughly  treated  by  a  recognized  authority  of  the  high- 
est standing  and  most  comprehensive  experience,  in  the 
special  chapter  of  this  volume  by  Mr.  M.  C.  Fitz  Gerald, 
Manager  of  Transportation  of  the  General  Electric  Com- 
pany. It  only  remains  in  this  chapter  to  quote  supple- 
mentary suggestions  from  letters  and  instructions  issued 
by  other  authorities,  arid  to  illustrate  the  best  practice  in 
packing  machinery  by  some  large  and  successful  ex- 
porters. 

Disassembling  Machines. — Much  displacement,  mean- 
ing reduction  in  cubic  space  and  consequent  charges, 
was  saved  by  the  United  States  Government  in  its  pack- 
ing of  machinery  for  export  during  the  war,  and  is  today 
being  saved  by  manufacturers,  through  the  partial  or 
complete  disassembling  of  the  contents  of  cases.     But 

332 


^b^ 


THE  PACKING  OF  MACHINEEY  333 

disassembling  must  be  most  carefully  considered.  In 
the  case  of  simple  machinery,  the  reassembling  of  which 
requires  no  particular  technical  skill,  there  should  be  no 
hesitancy  in  taking  the  machine  down  and  packing  it  in 
the  smallest  possible  space,  but  in  the  case  of  very  com- 
plicated machines  that  require  an  expert  mechanic  for 
their  reassembling,  the  manufacturer  must  carefully 
consider  what  facilities  are  present  for  taking  care  of 
the  reassembling  problem  at  the  point  of  destination. 
In  the  case  of  costly  machinery  it  is  frequently  the  prac- 
tice to  have  the  customer  pay  the  erecting  costs,  and 
these  erecting  costs  may  include  the  sending  of  a 
mechanic  from  the  United  States  to  do  the  work,  the 
customer  paying  all  expenses.  In  many  instances,  how- 
ever, carefully  worked  out  instruction  sheets  will  take 
care  of  the  problem,  but  these  instruction  sheets  should 
be  in  the  language  of  the  customer  and  most  carefully 
translated  by  a  man  knowing  technically  the  particular 
machine.  It  is  always  possible  to  have  good  photographs 
taken  of  the  process  of  assembling  the  machine  and  these 
should  always  accompany  the  instruction  sheets.  How- 
ever, in  considering  the  subject  of  disassembling  machin- 
ery it  is  always  well  to  remember  that  the  knocking  down 
process  and  shipment  of  a  dismantled  machine  may 
sometimes  cause  more  trouble  and  expense  in  assembling 
than  the  actual  saving  in  freight  amounts  to. 

The  specifications  for  packing  of  the  General  Engi- 
neer Depot  of  the  War  Department  contain  the  following 
paragraphs : 

''Machines  will  preferably  be  shipped  complete  when 
weight  and  space  occupied  are  not  objectionable.  Small 
and  fragile  parts  will  generally  be  demounted  and  packed 
with  proper  care,  in  a  compartment  built  into  the  large 
case.  Other  small  detached  parts  should  be  bolted  or 
securely  fixed  to  the  cross  bars  or  supports,  if  not  packed 
in  a  compartment  of  the  main  box. 

''When  machinery  is  knocked  down,  dismantled  parts 
will  be  marked  with  a  number  of  ample  size  and  easily 
seen.     Bolts  and  screws  will  be  greased  and  put  back 


334  EXPORT  PACKING 

into  their  proper  places.  Each  key  will  be  taped  in  the 
key  seat.  Uncovered  oil  holes  and  tapped  holes  will  be 
filled  with  pine  plugs  driven  in  to  exclude  dirt." 

An  English  authority  offers  the  following:  *' Erecting 
troubles  often  come  from  corresponding  parts  of  the 
right  and  left  hand  sides  of  the  machine  being  inter- 
changeable. This  can  be  prevented  by  adding  the  letter 
*L'  or  'X'  on  left  hand  pieces.  A  paint  should  be 
used  that  will  easily  wash  off  after  erection.  White  lead 
and  turpentine  are  very  satisfactory.'' 

To  what  extent  a  machine  should  be  dismounted 
depends  chiefly  on  the  character  of  the  machine  and  its 
destination.  In  a  general  way,  where  any  comparatively 
fragile  part  stands  out  from  a  more  solid  mass  it  should 
be  dismounted  and  packed  separately.  Where  light  open 
framework  gives  a  machine  great  bulk  with  compara- 
tively little  weight,  it  should  be  taken  apart  and  the 
various  pieces  packed  flat.  Fragile  parts  and  accessories 
should  be  dismounted,  greased,  wrapped  in  oiled  paper 
and  tucked  securely  away  in  the  body  of  the  machine. 
All  polished  parts  of  the  framework '  should  be  greased 
and  machined  parts  wrapped  with  two  or  three  layers 
of  straw  rope,  when  comparatively  rough  machines  for 
short  journeys  are  shipped  without  box,  as  is  sometimes 
done.  In  taking  a  machine  apart,  the  packer  should 
always  keep  in  mind  continually  the  question  of  how  it 
shall  be  reassembled.  Bolts  and  set  screws  should,  when- 
ever possible,  be  put  back  into  the  places  where  they 
belong,  each  key  should  be  kept  to  its  own  wheel,  but  as 
it  is  impossible  to  tie  a  key  securely,  a  wooden  plug 
should  be  driven  tight  into  the  bore  and  the  key  driven 
into  the  plug;  or  the  key  may  be  put  in  a  canvas  bag  and 
attached  to  the  shaft  or  wheel.  Uncovered  oil  holes  and 
tapped  holes  should  be  fitted  with  a  wooden  peg  to  keep 
out  dirt  and  where  shafts  enter  bearings  a  few  strands 
of  yarn  should  be  wrapped  around  the  shaft  for  the  same 
purpose. 

A  large  export  firm  on  our  Pacific  Coast  issues  a 
circular  to  makers  of  machines  whose  products  it  may 


Courtrfty    of   Norton    (<>. 

How  THE  Machine  is  Held  in  Place. 
This  picture  is  taken  from  a  positiwi  slightly  above  the  machine  and  illua- 
tratcs  the  method  of  holding  it  in  place  in  the  box. 


Courtesy   of  Norton   Co. 
The  Disassembled  Machine  in  Complete  Shipment. 
The   entire  sh'-pment   ready  to  be  placed  aboard  cars.     In   this   picture  the 
method  of  marking  is  also  plainly  shown. 

335 


Courtegy  of  Worthington  Pump  and  Machinery  Cwp. 
)  Packing  a  Power  Pump. 

Vertical  triplex  power  pump  set  on  3"  x  6"  spruce  timbers  for  skidding, 
cross  brace  is  of  the  same  material  and  size. 


The 


Courtesy  of  Worthiru/ton   Pump   and  Mnchinrnj  Corp. 

Mounting  the  Pump  ox  Plattorm. 

The  pump  is  mounted  on  skids  with  proper  blocking  underneath,  ready  for 
framing  and  boxing.  Platform  is  of  very  rigid  construction.  Note  that  dis- 
charge air  chamber  has  been  removed  from  pump  and  is  bolted  and  blocked 
tii  platform  underneath  machine.  It  is  the  practice  to  carefully  pack  all 
accessories  in  small  boxes  placed  under  machine. 

336 


THE  PACKING  OF  MACHINERY  337 

order  for  export,  from  which  the  following  is  to  be  noted : 

^^Each  machine  and  all  parts  thereof,  when  the  same 
are  not  shipped  attached  to  the  individual  machine,  shall 
be  marked  with  the  same  item  number  that  is  shown  on 
the  order  list.  This  applies  also  to  any  and  all  equip- 
ment to  which  an  item  number  is  assigned  on  the  order. 
The  numbering  shall  be  done  in  the  following  manner: 

*^A11  large  and  heavy  parts  shall  be  marked  with  let- 
ters at  least  2"  in  height,  in  a  color  contrasting  to  the 
body  color,  in  four  different  places.  All  small  parts  shall 
have  a  metal  tag  not  less  than  lV2"x3"  attached  thereto 
with  No.  16  gauge  annealed  wire.  These  tags  shall  be 
marked  with  the  item  number  by  punching  or  raised  let- 
ters 1/2^  in  height.  In  no  case  is  paint  to  be  used  for 
marking  tags.  All  small  parts,  or  anything  that  tags  and 
paint  cannot  be  used  on  for  marking,  shall  have  the  item 
number  stamped  thereon  in  a  place  that  is  not  injurious 
and  is  clearly  visible.  Shafting  shall  have  the  number 
stamped  on  each  end.  This  stamping  shall  be  in  letters 
at  least  i/o"  in  height.^' 

Protection  of  Bright  Parts. — From  the  circular  of  the 
Pacific  Coast  exporter  who  has  just  been  quoted,  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph  is  also  to  be  noted: 

'*A11  exposed  faces  of  machinery  or  machinery  parts 
that  are  planed,  polished  or  otherwise  finished,  shall  be 
covered  with  a  pure  white  lead  and  boiled  linseed  oil, 
with  sufficient  drier  to  harden  properly.  All  interior 
faces  of  machinery  or  machinery  parts  that  are  planed, 
polished  or  otherwise  finished,  such  as  cylinders,  shall 
be  protected  by  a  coating  of  petroleum  jelly.  All  deli- 
cate machine  parts  shall  be  first  wrapped  in  oil-soaked 
cheesecloth,  then  wrapped  with  burlap  and  sewed  before 
boxing.  ^ ' 

The  specifications  of  the  General  Engineer  Depot 
include  the  following:  "Exposed  surfaces  of  machined 
parts  shall  be  protected  with  a  rust-preventing  coating, 
free  from  acid,  which  expands  easily,  sets  quickly  to  a 
sufficient  firmness,  and  dissolves  readily  when  wiped 
down  with  oil,  turpentine  or  petroleum.    Adequate  wood 


338  EXPORT  PACKING 

covers  or  lagging  will  also  be  used  when  found  necessary. 

^*When  bearings  are  used  as  supports,  block  supports 
are  prepared;  (1)  support  points  will  be  slushed,  (2)  a 
zinc  plate  will  be  laid  thereon,  (3)  carriage  cloth  or  oil- 
cloth will  be  laid  on  the  zinc,  finished  side  to  the  zinc, 
and  the  other  side  slushed  to  receive  the  shaft. '^ 

A  representative  of  the  High  Commission  of  a  great 
foreign  government  which  has  offices  in  New  York  City, 
submits  among. his  recommendations  for  the  packing  of 
machinery  this  advice  as  to  the  protection  of  bright 
parts:  ^'Care  should  be  taken  to  well  protect  the  con- 
tents of  the  crates  against  moisture  by  properly  covering 
all  bright  metal  parts  with  a  rust  preventative,  of  which 
there  are  several  kinds  on  the  market.  In  the  case  of 
pieces  of  heavy  machinery  which  are  shipped  uncrated, 
one  of  the  best  rust  preventatives  is  a  mixture  of  white 
lead  and  tallow.  This  mixture  has  the  disadvantage  of 
being  difficult  to  remove.  Among  the  rust  preventatives 
used  by  the  different  automobile  companies  may  be  men- 
tioned such  compounds  as  coral  compound,  cedarolium 
compound,  glenmore  compound,  etc.  Some  of  these  com- 
pounds are  easier  to  remove  than  others,  and  in  many 
cases  it  is  necessary  to  wash  the  parts  in  steaming 
hot  soda  tanks  in  order  to  remove  these  protective 
compounds. ' ' 

The  English  authority  already  quoted  says  that  in 
coating  bright  parts  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
remember  that  the  machines  may  not  only  be  exposed  to 
rain  and  an  occasional  dose  of  salt  water  during  their 
journey,  but  that  in  passing  through  custom  houses  cases 
may  be  opened  and  the  coating,  if  not  sufficiently  firm, 
may  be  rubbed  off  in  places,  while  even  after  arrival  the 
cases  may  stand  for  some  time  before  they  can  be 
unpacked. 

Packing  of  Small  Parts. — Instructions  issued  to 
American  manufacturers  by  the  High  Commission  of  one 
of  the  great  foreign  governments  include  the  following: 

**In  connection  with  the  boxing  of  parts  it  is  quite 
important  that  all  small  parts  be  contained  in  well  water- 


('(jitrtisji  of  W'nrthinatmi   Pump  and  Machinery  Corp. 
Completed  Framework  op  Case. 

Illustrates  further  steps  in  packing  the  same  machine  as  shown  in  previous 
illustration.  Framework  is  ready  for  hoards,  the  uprights  being  securely  spiked 
fo  platform  and  braced  where  neecssary  against  various  parts  of  machine. 
With  additional  bracing  afforded  by  case  itself  this  provides  very  rigid  con- 
struction. 


toutl(fi!f  of   \\  urthiiiyton  Pump  and  Machinery  Corp. 

Case  Containing  Steam  Pump. 

Top  and  one  side  of  case  are  removed  to  show  method  of  packing.  Note 
especially  manner  in  which  pump  is  supported  in  case  by  blocks  placed  under 
solid  flanged  portions,  keeping  feet  from  touching  platform.  Note  also  that 
entire  weight  of  pump  is  not  carried  by  bottom  of  case  as  sides  help  support 
weight  by  cross  braces  nniled  to  side  boards.  Top  cross  pieces  also  hold  pump 
in  firm   position.      Note   compactness   of  case   in  relation   to   hulk   of  material. 

339 


Courtesy  of  The  Cltallcngc  Macliinvty  Company. 

Crating  Parts  op  Printing  Press. 

Crate  No    1  contains  the  side  frames.     Crate  No.  2  the  center  girts.     Method 
of  construction  fully  described  in   text. 


Courti'sii  uj   J  he  Challenge  Machinery  Company. 
Packing  Printing-press  Parts. 
Crate  No.   3   contains  the  troughs.     Bow  No.   J,   contains  the  cylinder;  No.   5 
contains  all  small  parts;  No.  6  contains  the  fountain.     Method  of  packing  fully 
described  tn  text.  f  j      » 

340 


THE  PACKING  OF  MACHINERY  341 

proofed  bags;  that  all  threaded  parts  be  well  protected 
against  injury  by  contact  with  other  parts.  All  finished 
or  ground  parts  should  be  separately  packed  to  avoid 
damage  to  finished  surfaces.  The  tags  designating  the 
names  and  numbers  of  the  different  parts  should  be  of 
such  material  that  they  will  not  be  damaged  by  oil  or 
water,  and  in  this  connection  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the 
use  of  aluminum  or  other  metal  tags  is  being  generally 
adopted.  A  packing  list  containing  the  contents  of  all 
crates,  boxes  or  packages  should  always  be  well  secured 
in  a  prominent  place  in  the  interior  of  the  box;  also,  it 
is  desirable  that  a  copy  of  such  a  list,  when  practicable, 
be  well  secured  to  the  outside  of  the  crate  or  box,  covered 
with  galvanized  sheet  iron  or  other  suitable  protection.*^ 

The  utmost  care  is  required  in  making  certain  that 
all  parts  are  shipped  and  are  so  shipped  that  they  will 
arrive  safely  and  complete,  as  will  be  realized  from  a 
consideration  of  the  great  loss  which  may  be  occasioned 
should  the  parts  be  lost  or  damaged  en  route.  A  machine 
arriving  minus  essential  parts  is  utterly  useless  until 
new  parts  can  be  secured,  which  may  entail  months  of 
delay,  which  in  turn  may  mean  excessive  pecuniary  loss, 
as,  for  example,  when  a  mill  or  factory  is  being  equipped. 

Inside  Bracing  and  Packing. — The  General  Engineer 
Depot  of  the  War  Department  among  its  specifications 
publishes  the  following: 

' '  Machinery  itself  should  be  covered  with  water-proof- 
ing paper  or  oilcloth  to  prevent  damage  from  moisture. 
Machinery  should  be  thoroughly  slushed  with  suitable 
protective  compound.  All  loose  or  detached  parts  should 
be  firmly  and  securely  fixed  to  prevent  dislodgement 
during  transit.  All  finished  surfaces  to  be  amply  pro- 
tected against  injury  from  salt  air  and  water. 

*' Packages  containing  machinery,  or  parts,  should  be 
securely  blocked  in  the  case  or  crate  to  prevent 
movement. 

*' Electrical  and  mechanical  apparatus  to  be  solidly 
packed  in  excelsior,  straw,  salt  hay,  or  other  filler  in  a 
solid  box  with  paneled  ends,  securely  nailed  and  then 


342  EXPORT  PACKING 

reenforced  with  %  by  3-inch  battens  around  the  sides 
at  the  ends,  with  1-inch  by  No.  18  gauge  strap  iron  all 
the  way  around  the  battens,  ends  lapping  at  least  6  inches. 

*' Projecting  portions  of  heavy  castings  having  narrow 
necks  ifiust  be  taken  off,  as  they  will  break  off  by  jarring. 

^^Gray  iron  extended  parts  must  be  kept  one-half  to 
one  inch  away  from  covering,  as  the  spring  of  boards 
will  cause  breakage. 

' '  Where  light  gray  iron  castings  or  breakable  machine 
parts  are  near  the  outside  of  a  package,  brace  the  case 
so  that  there  may  be  always  one  inch  clearance  between 
the  articles  and  the  case. 

^'•Two  heavy  cast  pieces  must  not  rest  together,  but 
must  be  cushioned  or  separated  by  wood  brace  or  block. 

^*  Cross  timbers  which  hold  heavy  articles  in  place 
should  be  socketed  at  the  ends  where  there  is  danger  of 
splitting  if  nails  only  are  used. 

**  Heavy  items  must  be  firmly  bolted  to  skids  or  floor- 
ing; nothing  shall  be  hung  from  sides  of  boxes.  Unoc- 
cupied space  in  packing  boxes  must  be  thoroughly  braced. 

*' Articles  subject  to  damage  by  moisture  shall  be  ade- 
quately protected. 

' '  Switchboards  shall  be  packed  in  two  boxes,  the  inner 
box  being  floated  in  the  outer  box,  3"  clear  space  between, 
this  space  packed  with  excelsior.  The  inner  box  has 
supports;  upon  these  is  laid  the  switchboard  with 
cigarettes  between;  these  cigarettes  are  two  or  three 
inches  in  diameter,  of  excelsior  rolled  in  paper,  pieces 
are  then  forced  down  over  the  cigarettes  and  nailed  to 
the  sides.  The  inner  box  is  completed,  floated  in  the 
outer  box,  and  this  properly  secured. '* 

The  instructions  of  the  foreign  government's  High 
Commission,  which  have  already  been  quoted,  state  in 
this  connection :  * '  It  may  be  mentioned  in  connection  with 
packing  that  the  use  of  the  excelsior  which  was  formerly 
used  to  quite  an  extent  has  now  been  practically  elim- 
inated, as  it  is*  not  necessary  to  make  use  of  such  mate- 
rial when  the  contents  of  the  boxes  are  well  secured  in 
place ;  also,  it  may  be  noted  that  excelsior  may  be  con- 


THE  PACKING  OF  MACHINERY  343 

sidered  as  being  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion.'* 

An  English  authority  may  be  quoted  as  follows :  '*The 
sweating  which  takes  place  on  board  ship  and  affects  the 
cases  themselves  also  attacks  their  contents,  especially 
the  parts  of  machinery  to  which  it  is  not  possible  to 
apply  slush  or  the  usual  rust  preventatives.  In  no  case 
should  machinery  be  packed  with  sawdust  or  wood  chips 
when  these  materials  can  get  among  the  parts  of  the 
gearings,  as  this  occasions  the  receiver  an  endless  amount 
of  trouble  and  unnecessary  annoyance.  *' 

Shipping  Weights. — The  War  Department  in  its  over- 
seas shipments  advised  that  **  packages  over  l,66o  pounds 
or  less  than  200  pounds  are  to  be  avoided  when  prac- 
ticable." Of  course,  it  is  not  always  practicable  to 
reduce  weights  to  this  limit,  and  where  port  and  interior 
transportation  facilities  at  destination  are  such  as  to 
permit  the  easy  handling  of  heavy  packages  there  is  no 
objection  to  bulk.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  a 
heavy  case  weighing  perhaps  several  tons  cannot  be 
thrown  around  and  handled  so  roughly  during  transit 
as  can  smaller  cases ;  and  that  the  officers  of  ships  always 
pay  particular  and  personal  attention  to  the  handling  of 
such  extremely  heavy  cases,  because  of  the  damage  which 
would  be  done  to  their  own  vessel  and  to  lighters  or  quays 
should  freight  of  this  description  be  suddenly  dropped 
on  decks  or  down  hatchways  into  the  holds  of  vessels. 

An  English  authority  calls  attention  to  the  packing 
in  small  cases  sometimes  required : 

^^In  packing  shipments  for  crude,  rough  transporta- 
tion to  interior  and  almost  inaccessible  points  in  such 
countries  as  Colombia,  to  mines  in  other  countries  simi- 
larly situated  in  regard  to  transportation  facilities,  it  is 
necessary  to  remember  that  machines  should  be  disunited 
and  heavy  parts  reduced  to  the  lightest  weight  possible, 
because  bulky  and  heavier  pieces  are  always  left  by 
muleteers  for  long  periods  while  the  lighter  packages 
are  first  transported.  Of  course,  there  are  some  struc- 
tural parts,  such  as  base  castings,  where  the  size  and 
weight  are  fixed  quantities  and  which  it  is  impossible  to 


344  EXPORT  PACKING 

transport  on  muleback.  Such  parts  should  be  stripped 
of  everything,  including  bolts,  nuts  and  removable  parts, 
and  then  bolted  on  skids  both  top  and  bottom  so  that 
they  can  be  hauled  by  mules  or  oxen  as  the  custom  is  in 
these  countries  for  interior  deliveries.  Machines  des- 
tined for  such  interior  points  are  frequently  exposed  to 
the  weather  for  many  days,  heavy  rains  succeeded  by 
intense  heat,  and  sometimes  such  machinery  may  be 
covered,  after  two  or  three  weeks '  exposure,  with  several 
inches  of  mud.'* 

Construction  of  Cases  and  Crates. — One  fact  which 
must  always  be  taken  into  consideration  in  packing  ma- 
chinery for  export  is  the  fact  that  cases  or  crates  are  as 
likely  as  not  to  be  turned  on  their  sides  or  even  stowed 
upside  down.  This  general  subject  has  already  been 
thoroughly  treated  in  other  pages  of  this  volume.  It  is, 
however,  believed  desirable  to  reprint  at  this  point 
further  observations  and  instructions  bearing  on  the 
construction  of  cases  and  crates,  even  at  the  risk  of 
repetition. 

The  following  advice  is  transmitted  by  the  New  York 
representative  of  the  High  Commission  of  a  foreign  gov- 
ernment from  whose  communications  on  the  subject  of 
export  packing  quotations  have  already  been  made : 

^'For  shipping  heavy  material  which  is  subject  to 
damage  in  transit  and  deterioration  if  exposed  to  the 
weather,  the  following  principles  should  be  adhered  to 
in  crating  such  material: 

*' Depending  upon  the  size  of  the  crates  containing 
automobiles,  trucks  or  other  large  heavy  machines,  these 
crates  should  be  constructed  of  good  material  only  and 
have  such  a  general  strength  that  they  can  resist  the 
bending  and  twdsting  forces  which  may  be  applied  to 
them  when  they  are  handhd  in  loading  and  unloading, 
carried  in  slings,  etc.  This  means  that  the  floors  of  these 
crates  shall  be  amply  thick,  of  double  thickness  planking 
in  many  cases,  and  that  the  bottom,  sides,  ends  and  top 
of  the  crate  be  well  strengthened  by  interior  bracing 
and  that  the  construction  of  the  corners  be  such  that  the 


Courtesy  of  Babcock  Printing  Press  Mfg.  Co. 

Packing  a  Printing  Press. 

A  numhiT  6   Htandard  track  being  placed  in  the  skeleton  of  its  crate.     The 
crate  is  made  of  material  I14"  thick.     Note  how  the  track  is  bedded  in  excelsior. 


Courtesy  of  Babcock  Printing  Press  Mfg.  Co. 

Completed  Crate  for  Track. 

The  track  shown  in  the  previo^us  illustration  completely  crated   a/nd  in  the 
process   of  being   moved  from    box  shop   to  car. 

345 


Courtesy  of  Bahcock  Printing  Press  Mfg.  Co. 

Packing  Units  of  Printing  Press. 

The  "outrigger"  hox  on  a  number  6  Standard  Press.     The  balance  wheel  can 

he  seen   beneath  the  feeder's  platform.     Note  the  method  of  placing  parts  in 

boxes.     Box  is  made  of  boards  1%"  thick.     Measurements  over  all  3'  x  V  x  V. 


Courtesy  of  Babcock  Printing  Press  Mfg.  Co. 

A  Crated  Printing  Press  Side  Frame. 

The  material  from  which  this  crate  is  made  is  IV^"-  thick.  Nate  that  three 
thicknesses  of  this  material  are  placed  crosiwise  of  each  other  on  each  side  of 
frame.     A  crate  containing  a  pair  of  feed  table  brackets  stands  at  left. 

346 


THE  PACKING  OF  MACHINERY  347 

bottom,  sides,  ends  and  top  are  well  tied  together.  In 
this  connection  it  is  preferable  that  lag  screws  or  bolts 
be  used  as  fastenings  in  the  corners  rather  than  nails; 
also,  that  the  bracing  of  the  sides  and  the  ends  consist 
of  both  diagonal  and  vertical  braces. 

* '  Not  less  than  three  skids  of  large  cross  section  and 
of  a  length  equal  to  the  total  length  of  the  crate  should 
be  fitted  to  the  bottom  of  the  crate.  The  transverse 
strength  of  the  crate  must  be  such  that  the  crate  can 
resist  the  eifect  of  crushing  when  it  is  raised  with  slings. 
Suitable  chocks,  blocks,  etc.,  must  be  securely  fastened 
to  the  bottom  or  floor  of  the  crate,  to  which  chocks,  blocks, 
etc.,  can  be  attached  the  truck  or  other  machinery  con- 
tained in  the  crate  in  such  a  way  as  to  insure  that  there 
will  be  no  movement  of  this  machinery.  In  addition  to 
the  above  mentioned  attachments  to  the  bottom  of  the 
crate,  it  is  often  desirable  that  the  contents  of  the  crate 
be  braced  firmly  In  place  with  such  additional  shores  or 
chocks  as  may  be  necessary  to  prevent  all  tendency  to 
movement. 

'^It  is  important  that  the  crate  have  sufficient  local 
strength  to  avoid  damage  to  its  contents  if  small  heavy 
articles  are  placed  on  top.  For  example,  in  some  ship- 
ments, owing  to  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  steve- 
dores, heavy  coils  of  barbed  wire  were  often  placed  on  the 
tops  of  crates  containing  machines,  with  a  consequent 
damage  to  the  contents  of  these  crates. 

*^It  is  desirable  to  have  the  sides  and  top  of  the  crate 
made  of  matched  boards  rather  than  plain  boards, 
although  satisfactory  crates  are  often  constructed  by 
using  plain  boards  in  conjunction  with  a  good  grade  of 
strong  waterproof  paper.  It  is  desirable  to  use  such 
waterproof  paper  on  the  bottom,  sides,  ends  and  top  of 
the  crates,  although  when  matched  boards  are  used  it  is 
often  omitted  on  the  sides  and  ends.^' 

The  specifications  of  the  General  Engineer  Depot  of 
the  War  Department,  among  other  things,  provide  that 
all  packing  should  be  as  light  in  weight  as  possible  and 
cubic  contents  kept  to  a  minimum  in  order  to  economize 


348  EXPORT  PACKING 

shipping  space;  but  the  paramount  consideration  must 
always  be  safe  handling.  Brittle  pine  crates  of  half- 
inch  board  are  worthless. 

**Each  case  or  crate  should  be  firmly  bound  with  strap 
or  band  iron.  Straps  should  be  not  less  than  one  inch 
wide  No.  18  gauge.  Ends  should  overlap  at  least  6  inches. 

^^All  lumber  used  in  boxing  and  packing  to  be  strictly 
sound  and  of  such  dimensions  as  to  insure  full  protection 
under  rough  handling.  Under  no  circumstances  should 
outside  boxing  be  less  than  13/16  inch  thick. 

^'Packages  over  300  pounds  should  be  packed  in  not 
less  than  2-inch  stock,  additional  straps  and  bindings  to 
be  used  at  every  2V2  inches  for  boxes  exceeding  3  feet 
in  length. 

*^  Boxes  600  pounds  weight  or  over  shall  have  4x4-inch 
skids,  top  and  bottom  of  box,  securely  bolted  together 
with  %-inch  diameter  bolts,  and  these  bolts,  wherever 
possible,  should  extend  entirely  through  the  box.  To 
prevent  shifting,  ends  of  box  must  be  securely  braced 
inside. 

*'Use  yellow  pine,  gum,  white  pine,  spruce  and  hem- 
lock lumber  surfaced  one  or  more  sides.  This  gives  a 
desirable  uniformity  of  thickness  and  makes  easy  sten- 
ciling on  more  than  one  face  of  the  package. 

**Use  cement  coated  or  barbed  wire  nails — 8-penny 
and  10-penny.  This  is  important  to  make  the  nails  hold. 
Not  less  than  two  in  end  of  any  board  and  not  over  four 
inches  apart  in  wide  boards.    Six-inch  boards,  three  nails. 

^*Use  corner  posts  in  all  packages.*' 

From  Siberia  advice  is  given  that  all  cases  weighing 
over  500  pounds  be  fitted  with  skids  as  there  is  no  modern 
freight  handling  machinery  in  eastern  Siberia,  and  all 
shipments  for  interior  cities  should  receive  extra  strong 
packing  as,  in  addition  to  the  crude  methods  of  handling 
cargo  at  Vladivostok,  they  are  subject  to  very  much 
rougher  handling  in  unloading  from  the  railway  cars 
into  river  barges  and  again  at  landing;  it  is  very  likely 
that  they  will  again  receive  rough  handling  in  long  hauls 
in  primitive  carts  before  reaching  their  destination. 


THE  PACKING  OF  MACHINERY  349 

Packing  of  Machine  Tools. — American  machine  tool 
manufacturers  have  for  many  years  devoted  the  closest 
attention  to  disassembling,  and  export  packages  of  this 
class  of  machinery  give  very  interesting  solutions  of  this 
particular  problem.  In  addition,  the  machine  tool  pre- 
sents very  nice  questions  of  proper  balancing  and  bracing 
as  well  as  the  packing  of  the  stripped  portions.  We 
find  machinery  of  this  character  provided  with  the  most 
delicate  adjustments.  Proper  protection  of  the  different 
surfaces  is  also  most  highly  essential  and  this  presents 
another  angle  of  the  packing  problem. 

Through  the  kindness  of  a  prominent  manufacturer, 
several  photographs  are  reproduced  in  connection  with 
this  chapter  which  show  practice  that  is  the  result  of 
many  years'  experience  constantly  checked  with  results 
from  the  consignees  *  standpoint.  A  study  of  the  bracing 
of  the  cases  and  of  the  machine,  as  shown  in  these  photo- 
graphs, will  be  of  great  value  to  all  interested  in  export 
packing.  By  comparing  the  cubic  contents  of  the  assem- 
bled machine  with  the  completed  export  boxes  (see  cuts 
appearing  on  pages  328  and  335)  some  idea  will  be  gath- 
ered of  the  extent  to  which  the  machine  in  question,  in 
process  of  being  shipped  to  Holland,  has  been  stripped 
and  the  care  with  which  it  has  been  packed.  All  finished 
surfaces  throughout  the  machine  are  covered  with  a  spe- 
cial slushing  compound,  developed  by  this  particular 
manufacturer  for  his  own  use,  and  which  has  been  found 
to  successfully  resist  ravages  of  moisture  and  salt  air. 

Hoisting  Machinery. — Among  many  interesting  let- 
ters which  have  been  received  detailing  practices  of 
experienced  manufacturers  in  the  export  packing  of  their 
products,  the  following  from  a  well  known  manufacturer 
of  hoisting  machinery  is  notable:  *'No  general  rule  can 
ever  be  laid  down  for  export  packing,  because  the  size 
of  the  lumber  always  depends  upon  the  weight,  shape 
and  size  of  the  piece  boxed.  The  first  thing  to  en- 
sure is  a  strong  envelope  and  then  to  secure  the  part 
which  goes  into  the  envelope  with  cross  bracing  in  such 
a  manner  that  it  is  absolutely  tight,  so  that  jerks,  jars 


350  EXPORT  PACKING 

and  slamming  around  cannot  loosen  it  and  cause  it 
to  slip  and  slide  around  until  it  breaks  the  box.  The 
object  is,  of  course,  to  provide  packing  that  will  stand 
rough  usage  in  transit ;  this  is  a  first  consideration,  but  it 
must  be  obtained  at  minimum  cost  and  with  minimum 
weight.  We  have  found  in  our  experience  that  crates 
will  not  stand  up  under  handling  and  do  not  furnish 
adequate  opportunities  for  inside  bracing,  nor  do  they 
furnish  protection  against  weather,  and  are  often 
actually  torn  off  by  the  use  of  hooks  or  broken  by 
handling  in  slings.  Flat  straps  securely  fastened  by 
nails  and  passed  entirely  around  the  case  should  be  used. 
Comer  straps  and  wire  straps  are  entirely  inadequate. 
For  marking  we  use  a  stencil  cutting  machine  but  where 
foreign  alphabets  are  used,  such  as  the  Eussian,  Chinese, 
etc.,  we  have  a  draftsman  make  a  drawing  of  the  mark, 
from  which  a  brass  stencil  is  made.'^ 

Another  large  shipper  of  hoisting  machinery  writes 
of  his  experience  and  practice  in  shipping  as  follows: 
^*0n  boxes  or  crates  ranging  from  three  to  five  feet 
square  and  approximately  six  to  eight  feet  in  length, 
carrying  a  weight  of  from  two  to  four  tons,  the  box  or 
crate  should  be  made  with  bottom  skids  of  3"x4"  or  4"x4" 
pine  lumber  beveled  at  the  ends  to  permit  application  of 
slings  and  rollers.  The  floor  of  our  boxes  is  made  of 
2-inch  plank,  vertical  posts  of  from  2"x4"  to  3"x4"  tim- 
bers bolted  directly  to  the  bottom  skids.  Sides,  tops  and 
ends  of  our  cases  we  make  from  li/4-inch  S2S  pine. 
Boxes  carrying  a  greater  weight  than  four  tons  must  be 
made  from  very  heavy  lumber  for  skids,  vertical  posts, 
sides,  tops  and  ends,  some  of  our  cases  having  8"x8" 
skids  and  6''x6''  posts  with  2-inch  plank  for  the  sides, 
tops  and  ends.  Large  pieces  of  machinery  are  bolted  to 
the  floor,  sides  or  ends,  or  securely  held  by  blocking 
and  strap  iron  to  prevent  shifting.  Small  parts  are 
invariably  packed  in  straw  or  excelsior  and  always- 
wrapped  in  oilcloth  or  waterproof  paper  when  of  a  char- 
acter likely  to  be  damaged  by  moisture.  Further  water- 
proofing is  provided  by  the  use  of  tarred  paper  inside 


Couftcay   of  Chandler  d   Price   Co. 

Method  of  Interior  Bracing. 

Ccise  contains  printing  press  packed  for  export..  Platform  has  as  its  base 
henry  2"  boards  on  which  at  cither  end  is  placed  a  2"  x  6"  cleat.  Space  be- 
tween cleats  is  filled  by  1"  boards,  making  a  strong  and  substantial  platform. 
Sides  of  case  arc  made  of^unplaced  I"  selected  Norway  pine.  Machine  is  bolted 
to  platform  and  case  braced  in  all  directions  by  2"  x  i"  stuff. 


i:iH 

^ 

1 

P-: 

9 

^          i 

^:-^'-      m 

1 

y^^ 

.HH'. 

W 

Ui 

_. 

1 


Courtesy  of  Chandler  &  Price  Co, 
Printing  Press  Packed  for  Muleback 
This  is  the  same  press  shown  in  previous  illustration. 

351 


Courtesy  of  Boston  Wire  Stitcher  Co. 
Packing  of  Wire  Stitching  Machine, 

Pieces  shown  are  the  interior  bracing  heforc  being  pUwcd  in  case  where  they 
are  identified  by  corresponding  numbers.     For  detailed  description  see  text. 


352 


THE  PACKING  OF  MACHINERY  353 

the  cases.  All  parts  are  given  from  one  to  two  coats  of 
paint  and  bright  parts  are  slushed  with  a  compound  made 
of  white  lead  and  tallow.'* 

Steam  Pumps.— Several  photographs  illustrating  the 
export  packing  of  a  large  manufacturer  of  steam  pumps 
and  similar  machinery  are  reproduced  on  pages  336  and 
339.  Writing  in  regard  to  its  packing  the  company  in 
question  states  that  the  following  features  of  its  prac- 
tice are  to  be  noted  in  addition  to  the  details  explained 
in  the  captions :  In  the  cut  on  page  336,  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  the  discharge  air  chamber  has  been  removed  and  is 
bolted  and  blocked  to  the  platform  underneath  the  ma- 
chine. All  accessories,  such  as  speed  governor,  lubri- 
cators, oil  cups,  wrenches,  etc.,  are  packed  in  small  boxes 
which  are  also  placed  underneath  the  machine  in  order  to 
utilize  space  to  best  advantage.  Another  cut  (page  339) 
directs  special  attention  to  the  manner  in  which  the  steam 
pump  is  supported  inside  the  case  by  blocks  placed  under 
the  solid  flanged  portions  of  the  pump,  keeping  the  feet 
from  touching  the  bottom.  The  entire  weight  is  not 
carried  by  the  bottom  of  the  case  as  the  sides  help  sup- 
port the  weight  by  the  cross  braces  nailed  to  them.  The 
top  cross  braces  are  so  designed  as  to  hold  the  pump 
firmly  against  lateral  movements.  This  case  is  believed 
to  be  as  compact  as  possible  under  the  circumstances, 
the  important  feature  in  saving  freight  rates.  Another 
photograph  supplied  by  this  manufacturer,  reproduced 
at  top  of  page  336,  illustrates  a  vertical  triplex  power 
pump  mounted  on  3"x6"  spruce  skids.  The  cross  brace 
shown  is  of  the  same  material  and  size. 

Extra  Heavy  Machinery. — No  general  rules  can  be 
laid  down  as  to  the  packing  or  lack  of  packing  or  even 
the  special  protection  that  is  required  in  exporting  large 
and  heavy  machinery,  especially  when  of  irregular 
shapes.  A  manufacturer  of  machinery  of  this  descrip- 
tion writes  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  construct 
a  package  that  will  stand  the  strain  of  the  weight  in 
handling  with  ropes  and  slings  and  it  is,  therefore,  very 
much  better  frequently  to  use  as  little  crating  as  possible 


354  EXPORT  PACKING 

on  such  pieces,  as  in  some  instances  crating  would  be 
certain  to  give  way  and  permit  shocks  which  might  cause 
the  lines  to  slip  or  part.  Photographs  supplied  by  this 
manufacturer,  v/hich  are  reproduced  on  pages  371,  602, 
are  submitted  as  illustrating  the  reasonableness  of  the 
claim  made.  It  is  stated  that  the  practice  is  to  place 
boards  over  finished  bored  holes  and  bearings,  and  to 
wrap  with  burlap  and  protect  by  narrow  strips  of  wood 
fastened  together  with  steel  bands,  the  smooth  finished 
surfaces,  as  on  shafts,  etc.  All  such  machinery  is  dis- 
mantled or  knocked  down  so  far  as  possible  to  make  the 
individual  pieces  of  the  lightest  weight.  Each  individual 
piece  is  stenciled  with  paint  in  good  sized  letters  and 
figures  showing  consigning  marks,  over  all  dimensions 
and  gross  weights. 

The  packing  of  large  pieces,  boilers,  etc.,  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  packing  shown  on  page  371,  of  a  con- 
denser prepared  for  export  shipment  by  a  prominent 
American  manufacturer.  In  this  case  the  saddles  and 
feet  are  not  cast  integral  with  the  shell.  The  cut  is 
felt  to  adequately  explain  the  packing  believed  necessary 
and  desirable. 

Printing  Presses. — It  is  doubtful  if  any  one  class -of 
American  machinery  has  been  more  widely  distributed 
all  over  the  world  than  have  our  printing  presses.  The 
United  States  is  without  doubt  the  country  of  greatest 
progress  in  the  graphic  arts,  and  the  spur  has  been  con- 
stantly applied  to  the  production  of  machinery  that  has 
expressed  high  attainment  in  economy,  efficiency  and 
simplicity.  A  number  of  American  manufacturers  of 
printing  machinery  have  a  worldwide  distribution  of 
their  products,  and  have  supplied  some  interesting  pho- 
tographs of  their  export  pacting  methods  and  practices 
which  are  reproduced  in  connection  with  this  chapter. 

The  printing  press  varies  from  a  fairly  light  machine 
to  one  weighing  a  number  of  tons,  and  while  it  is  not  a 
piece  of  precision  machinery,  it  is  none  the  less  one  of 
fine  adjustments  to  which  careful  attention  must  be 
given  in  packing.    One  well  known  manufacturer  sup- 


THE  PACKING  OF  MACHINERY  355 

plies  us  with  photographs  (see  pages  345  and  346),  and 
writes:  **We  have  found  after  thorough  investigation 
that  the  chief  cause  for  broken  parts  has  been  due  to  their 
being  packed  too  tightly  in  the  vessel;  that  when  large 
parts,  like  frames,  tracks,  etc.,  were  broken  it  was  not 
safe  merely  to  make  the  cases  of  heavier  lumber. 

**  Relative  to  the  material  used,  we  may  say  that  we 
have  always  felt  that  spruce  was  best.  It  is  very  tough, 
does  not  split  readily  and  is  strong — a  combination  which 
is  not  found  in  many  of  the  ordinary  hard  woods  used  for 
boxing.  For  export  boxes  we  use  from  l^-inch  up  to 
1%-inch  lumber  and  in  the  vital  places  we  use  two  boards, 
spiking  them  firmly  together.  A  plank  made  of  two  thick- 
nesses thus  spiked  together  is  often  far  stronger  than  a 
single  plank,  although  this  is  only  one  reason  for  using 
this  method,  the  other  being  our  own  convenience  in  not 
having  to  carry  so  many  different  sizes  of  lumber  in 
stock.  ^  * 

Other  cuts  illustrating  the  packing  of  printing  ma- 
chinery by  another  manufacturer  are  shown  herewith 
(page  351),  and  are  adequately  explained  by  the  captions 
to  these  cuts. 

Still  other  illustrations  of  the  packing  of  printing 
presses  have  been  supplied  by  a  third  manufacturer  in 
the  two  cuts  appearing  on  page  340  which  show  six  dif- 
ferent packages.  The  placards  attached  showing  weights 
in  pounds  and  kilos  were  merely  supplied  for  the  pur- 
pose of  photographing,  in  order  to  give  the  reader  an 
idea  of  the  weight  of  each  package  in  connection  with 
the  quality  of  the  packing  furnished.  In  reference  to 
these  packages,  further  details  are  necessary  than  it  is 
possible  to  supply  in  suitable  captions  to  the  cuts.  The 
manufacturer  supplies  the  following  data: 

''Crate  No.  1  contains  side  frames  and  is  made  by 
taking  two  pieces  2"x4"x7'  long.  Fasten  these  together 
with  five  cleats  I"x6"xl3i/^"  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
corners  are  flush.  The  top  consists  of  two  pieces;  one, 
I"x6"x7'  and  one,  l"x7V2"x7'.  Fasten  together  with 
three  cleats  l"x6"xl3i/2" ;  then  fill  in  with  I"x6"xl3y2" 


356  EXPORT  PACKING 

cleats  until  top  is  solid.  The  ends  are  composed  of  three 
pieces,  each  I"x8"xl5"  nailed  across  the  two  upright 
sides.  The  sides  are  composed  of  seven  pieces,  each  V 
x8"x4'3",  making  fourteen  pieces  in  all.  All  of  the  side 
pieces  on  each  side  are  long  enough  so  that  the  end  is 
nailed  to  the  cleats  on  top  and  bottom.  Three  pieces 
I"x8"x7'2"  are  then  nailed  on  each  side  lengthwise,  full 
length  of  the  crate — one  in  the  center ;  one  41/2"  from  the 
top  and  the  other  2"  from  the  bottom. 

*'The  inside  braces  are  made  as  follows:  Two  pieces 
%"x8%"xl6",  with  a  small  cleat  between  at  each  end, 
thus  forming  a  space  between,  are  nailed  together  and 
placed  inside  between  the  front  and  back  part  of  the 
frames  with  a  %"  bolt  running  completely  through  the 
two  frames,  sideboards,  and  brace  to  hold  this  brace 
in  position.  There  is  one  of  these  braces  at  each  end. 
One  piece  2"x8%"x7'  is  nailed  to  the  bottom  on  the  inside 
to  keep  bottom  of  frames  apart.  One  piece  %"x8"x4', 
hardwood,  is  nailed  upright  between  center  of  the  two 
side  frames  to  keep  frames  from  spreading.  Two  cleats 
I"x6"xl6i4"  are  nailed  to  this  upright  and  the  ends  nailed 
to  the  upright  side  pieces.  Two  pieces  I"x7"x8",  with 
small  cleats  between,  are  nailed  together  and  placed  be- 
tween the  cylinder  boxes  in  side  frames,  and  a  y2"xl8" 
bolt  running  completely  through  the  sides,  cylinder  boxes 
and  braces. 

**Nine  iron  bands,  each  28"  long  are  nailed,  three 
each,  over  top,  bottom  and  ends,  overlapping  4"  on  each 
side.  Formerly  these  merely  extended  over  the  corners 
and  not  completely  across  the  ends,  bottom  and  top. 

**  Crate  No.  2  contains  center  girts.  Each  end  con- 
sists of  two  pieces,  each  2"x5"x24i/2"  and  2"x4"x24i/2", 
the  former  being  on  the  gear  side  and  the  latter  on  the 
opposite  side.  Inside  of  these,  to  hold  them  together, 
are  nailed  two  cleats  each  I"x6"xl6",  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  allow  the  end  of  the  main  gear  shaft  to  extend  up 
between  the  2"  end  pieces.  Two  %"  bolt  holes  are  made 
through  the  2"x5"  and  2"x4"  end  pieces  at  each  end  of 
the  crate.     Through  these  holes,  %"x2y2"  cap  screws 


(1    &   2) 


Courtesy  of  Sleeper  and  HditU y,  inc. 
Base  op  Case  for  Nail  Machine. 


The  base  conaiats  of  S  heary  longitudinal  skids  A,  A^,  A-,  covered  by  a  platform 
of  heavy  boards,  B.  An  additional  feature  of  the  base  (illustration  2,  end  view 
of  base)  is  a  temporarily  attached  framework  C,  shown  in  illustration  3  as  the 
framework  for  the  cover. 


Courtesy  of  Sleeper  and  Hartley,  Inc. 

(3)     Framework  op  Case. 

Machine  is  lowered  into  position  on  base  and  bolted  thereto.  Central  sup- 
port D,  which  is  long  enough  to  stretch  across  two  base  skids,  is  put  in  place 
and  wooden  wedges  are  driven  between  D  and  bottom  of  machine  to  prevent 
shrinking  of  s^ipport.  Upright  eo^-ner  boards  E.  E\  E',  E^,  upper  framework  G, 
side  supports  F,  end  supports  O,  and  supporting  timhera  if,  H^,  H^,  etc.,  care 
nailed  into  position. 

35l 


Courtesy  of  Sleeper  and  Hartlev,  Inc. 

(4)  Another  View  of  Framework  of  Case. 
Thia  Uluatration  shows  aide  oj  case  opposite  to  that  reproduced  in  S. 


Courtesy  of  Sleeper  and  Hartley,  Inc. 
(5)  The  Completed  Case. 

Note  that  upper  comers  of  case  K  are  hevielled  off  to  prevent  splintering  of 
corner  cover  hoards  by  angular  blows.  Heavy  band  iron  is  <;arri€d  around 
case  and  over  top  in  two  places,  L.  The  skids  are  bevelled  off  and  end  covering 
boards  are  not  allowed  to  go  down  over  ends  of  skids;  side  boards  do  not  touch 
floor  within  half  an  inch. 

558 


THE  PACKING  OF  MACHINERY  359 

which  are  used  with  the  machine  are  placed  in  order  to 
hold  the  contents  solid.  These  bolts  go  into  the  tapped 
holes  in  the  center  girt.  Each  side  is  composed  of  three 
pieces,  each  I"x6"x4'2".  Two  of  these  are  nailed  to  the 
ends  so  that  they  are  flush  with  the  end  pieces  at  the 
corners,  the  other  one  being  equal  distance  between. 
The  top  consists  of  seven  pieces  I"x6"xl9",  nailed  to 
sides.  The  bottom  is  composed  of  three  pieces  l"x6" 
x4'2",  nailed  to  ends  lengthwise,  for  skids.  For  the  in- 
side braces  two  pieces  2"x3"xl6"  are  nailed  to  each  side 
piece  to  hold  the  gears  in  place.  The  crate  is  then  en- 
circled at  each  end  with  an  iron  band  6'  long.  Twelve 
bands  11"  long  are  used  at  side  and  end  pieces. 

*' Crate  No.  3  contains  the  troughs.  Bottom  is  made 
of  two  skids  2x4  inches,  6  feet  6  inches  in  length,  cleated 
together  with  five  cleats  each  1x6x12  inches,  end  cleats 
being  one  inch  from  the  end  of  skids.  The  sides  are 
composed  of  four  pieces,  each  1x6  inches  and  6  feet  6 
inches  in  length,  cleated  together  with  five  cleats  on  each 
side  lx6xl9V2  inches,  the  sides  being  nailed  to  the  bottom 
with  the  cleats  inward.  The  top  is  made  from  eight  pieces 
1x8x171/2  inches  nailed  across  to  the  sides  of  the  crate. 
Two  pieces  1x6  inches,  6  feet  6  inches  long,  are  then 
nailed  lengthwise  on  top  to  form  skids.  The  ends  are 
made  of  1x8  inches  stuff,  141/2  inches  long  or  cut  to  fit 
from  side  to  side.  Three  iron  bands  are  then  nailed  com- 
pletely around  the  center  and  ends  of  the  crate. 

**Box  No.  4  contains  the  cylinder  of  press  whose 
packing  is  now  being  described.  The  bottom  of  this  box 
consists  of  two  pieces  2x4  inches,  4  feet  10  inches  in 
length,  nailed  together  with  boards  running  crosswise  17 
inches  long,  making  the  size  of  the  bottom  17  inches  by  4 
feet  10  inches.  The  top  is  made  of  exactly  the  same  size 
material.  The  sides  are  made  of  boards  16  inches  in 
length  nailed  to  top  and  bottom,  all  boards  being  flush 
at  the  ends.  The  ends  consist  of  16-inch  boards  cross- 
wise from  top  to  bottom.  Four  cleats  1x4  inches  and  4 
feet  10  inches  long,  are  nailed  on  the  sides  at  the  comers 
the  full  length  of  the  box.    Between  these  cleats  there 


360  EXPORT  PACKING 

are  nailed  three  cleats  on  each  side  1x4x11  inches,  the 
ends  of  the  latter  meeting  the  longer  cleats.  One  of  these 
cleats  on  each  side  is  in  the  center  of  the  box,  the  other 
four  being  at  the  corners.  Iron  bands  are  placed 
completely  around  the  ends  and  center  of  the  box  over" 
the  11-inch  cleats. 

^'Box  No.  5  contains  small  parts  of  this  printing 
press.  The  ends  of  the  box  are  made  16  inches  deep  of 
lx28-inch  boards,  cleated  together  with  lx4-inch  cleats 
20  inches  long,  the  latter  extending  1  inch  on  each  end 
but  flush  with  the  ends  of  the  boards.  The  sides  are  5 
feet  10  inches  long,  16  inches  wide,  of  1-inch  boards  nailed 
to  the  ends  flush  with  the  cleats  of  the  latter.  The  top 
and  bottom  are  made  of  1-inch  boards,  5  feet  10  inches 
long  by  30  inches  wide,  nailed  to  the  ends.  Four  cleats 
30  inches  long  are  then  nailed  across  the  bottom,  and  the 
same  on  the  top,  two  of  them  being  at  the  corners,  the 
other  two  at  equal  distances  between.  The  eight  side 
cleats  are  long  enough  to  overlap  the  top  and  bottom 
cleats.  The  connecting  top,  bottom  and  side  cleats  are 
reenforced  at  the  corners  with  bands  12  inches  long. 
Four  bands  are  nailed  over  each  end  at  the  corners  bind- 
ing the  end  cleats  to  the  top  and  bottom  cleats.  Two 
cleats  I"x6"x5'10"  are  nailed  to  one  side  of  the  box  and 
these  serve  as  skids.  Four  iron  bands  approximately 
8"  long  are  nailed  to  each  end  of  skids,  lapping  4"  over 
the  end  of  box. 

**Box  No.  6  contains  fountain,  and  is  made  with 
two  one  piece  ends,  each  8V2x8x2  inches.  The  sides  are 
also  preferably  in  one  piece  55x8x1  inch.  The  top  and 
bottom  are  made  of  stuff  55x101/2x1  inch. 

**  Three  iron  bands  40"  long  are  nailed  completely 
around  the  box,  one  at  each  end  and  the  other  around 
the  center. 

**The  lumber  used  is  so-called  hard  wood,  usually 
gum.  By  referring  to  boxes  Nos.  1,  3,  4,  and  5  it  will  be 
noticed  that  on  one  side  at  least  the  cleats  run  full  length 
of  box,  serving  as  skids  so  that  the  box  can  be  handled  on 
rollers  when  necessary.     On  boxes  2  and  6  these  skid- 


THE  PACKING  OF  MACHINERY  361 

cleats  are  not  necessary  as  the  boards  run  the  long  way 
of  box.  Our  theory  is  that  some  provision  should  be 
made  so  that  every  box  can  be  handled  on  rollers  when 
required.  ^  * 

Wire  Stitching  Machinery.— The  wire  stitching  ma- 
chine is  a  good  example  of  a  small  machine  that  re- 
quires very  careful  export  packing.  While  by  no  means 
fragile  or  delicate,  as  are  precision  machinery  and 
instruments,  it  is  none  the  less  a  highly  specialized  piece 
of  machinery  which  must  be  carefully  packed  if  fine 
adjustments  are  to  be  conserved  and  the  machine  is  to 
arrive  at  destination  in  good  condition.  It  has  many 
bright  and  nickeled  parts  and  must  be  carefully  pro- 
tected by  proper  slushing  in  addition  to  being  thoroughly 
wrapped  in  waterproof  paper.  The  wedging  used  inside 
the  case  must  positively  guarantee  against  motion,  or 
damage  would  inevitably  result.  The  accompanying 
photograph  (page  352)  is  supplied  by  a  concern  which 
has  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  suitable  export  packing 
for  its  machinery.  The  blocking  or  wedges  shown  both 
outside  the  case  and  in  position  in  the  packed  case, 
bearing  duplicate  numbers,  display  the  thought  which 
has  been  given  to  the  question  of  suitable  wedging  for 
the  machine.  In  explaining  the  method  of  packing  this 
company  writes :  * '  The  finished  parts  are  coated  with  a 
slushing  grease  and  then  wrapped  in  waterproof  paper. 
The  blocking  No  1  is  first  nailed  together,  consisting  of 
three  pieces,  and  is  then  placed  in  position  inside  the 
case,  one  end  only  showing  in  the  photograph,  that  being 
the  long  end.  The  machine  is  then  placed  in  position  so 
that  the  back  is  firmly  locked  in  Notch  A  of  block  No.  1. 
The  next  process  is  the  bolting  of  the  machine  to  the 
bottom  with  %x3y2-inch  carriage  bolts.  Block  No.  2, 
with  notch  as  shown,  is  then  placed  over  the  top  of  the 
frame  and  pressed  down  firmly.  Block  No.  3  is  used 
to  hold  the  machine  against-No.  1,  and  block  No.  4  holds 
the  machine  down  and  acts  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  car- 
riage bolts.  The  small  box  shown  at  the  left  of  the  case 
contains  the  work-table  and  small  parts  removed  from 


362  EXPORT  PACKING 

the  head  of  the  machine.  It  is  26%x5%x3  inches.  This 
is  nailed  in  position  and  block  No.  5  is  then  attached  and 
the  case  is  complete  as  shown  and  ready  for  its  cover. 
These  cases  are  made  of  1  1/16-inch  native  eastern  pine, 
tongued  and  grooved  with  tongues  glued.  The  ends  are 
cleated  and  the  box  nailed  with  10-penny  cement  coated 
wire  nails,  bound  with  strap  iron  on  both  ends  and  in  the 
center.  The  particular  case  shown  is  45x151/2x25  inches 
inside  measurement.'^ 

Wire  Working  Machinery.— A  prominent  manufac- 
turing firm,  making  machinery  for  working  wire,  sup- 
plies photographs  (see  cuts  on  pages  357,  358,  363  and 
364),  with  the  following  notable  description  of  the  pack- 
ing, and  the  methods  employed : 

*  *  By  way  of  preface,  we  might  say  that  we  have  been 
making  shipments  for  a  number  of  years  to  Australasia, 
India,  China,  Japan,  South  and  Central  America,  the 
British  Isles,  and  the  Continent  of  Europe,  as  well  as 
to  the  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean. 

**The  methods  of  packing  and  boxing  which  we  have 
adopted  and  which  will  be  illustrated  and  described 
hereafter,  have  been  such  that  we  have  had  no  complaints 
of  breakage  from  our  foreign  customers,  nor  have  our 
casings  ever  been  considered  insufficient  or  inadequate. 
On  the  contrary,  we  have  had  a  number  of  unsolicited 
testimonials  from  foreign  customers  and  agents,  compli- 
menting us  upon  the  manner  in  which  our  packing  has 
withstood  the  varied  conditions  of  handling,  stowing  and 
shipping,  all  over  the  world.  The  head  of  our  shipping 
department  has  had  a  long  and  varied  experience  in  con- 
nection with  export  packing  and  shipping,  and  has  had 
also  a  very  varied  experience  at  sea  and  in  foreign  ports, 
so  that  he  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  all  the  conditions 
of  handling  and  stowing  freight  on  ships,  lighters  and 
dock,  in  all  of  the  countries  mentioned. 
.,** Apart  from  the  strength  of  the  base  and  outer 
casings,  our  main  reliance  is  placed  upon  a  system  of 
strutting  or  buttressing,  whereby  the  machine  is  very 
securely  supported  within  the  case,  so  that  it  will  travel 


t 


dyuHcsy  of  Sleeper  and  Hartley,  Inc. 
(6)  Packing  of  Spring-Coiling  Machine. 
A  solid  and  compact  machine  weighing  10  tons  and  having  few  open  spaces. 
Base  of  case  N  is  made  of  two  thicknesses  of  hoard,  IVi"  <ind  1%",  reenforced 
and  fastened  to  six  lo^igitudinal  skids.  After  machine  is  bolted  to  base,  comer 
supports  O  and  top  frame  P  are  nailed  into  position.  Struts  and  supports  R 
and  S  are  placed  and  firmly  nailed.   Similar  struts  T  are  secured  to  top  frame  P. 


Courtesy  of  Sleeper  and  Hartley,  Inc. 
(7)  Framework  of  Case. 
The  same  machine  as  shown  in  6,  the  photograph  showing  one  end  of  case. 
Note  the  solid  buttresses  U  which  effectually  buttress  the  frammg  for  the  i 
sides  and  cover  against  the  solid  body  of  the  machine. 

363 


Courtesy  of  Sleeper  and  Hartley,  Inc. 
(8)  Buttressing  the  Framing. 
Another  view  of  machine  shown  in  6  and  7.     Note  the  solid  buttresses  U. 


'  nuncsy  of  Slecpei'  and  Hartley,  Inc. 
(9)  The  Completed  Case. 
Note  especially  the  broad  band  xoith  arrows  V  indicating  center  of  gravity  of 
iVJt^^^  ^^  ^J^Zl^^-     ™«  indicates  the  point  at  which  sling  chains  are  to  be 
carried  around  the  case  in  transhipping, 

364 


THE  PACKING  OF  MACHINERY  365 

uninjured,  whether  stowed  on  end,  on  its  side,  or  up- 
side down. 

^'The  illustrations  and  descriptions  will  deal  with 
two  separate  types  of  machinery.  The  first  will  be  our 
standard  nail  machines.  These  are  open-framed  ma- 
chines, with  a  good  deal  of  space  in  and  around  them,  and 
having  the  weights  concentrated  at  two  or  three  specific 
points.  The  machine  which  we  are  illustrating  and 
describing  is  our  No.  3  size  of  this  machine,  the  net* 
weight  of  which  is  approximately  2,200  pounds.  In  the 
majority  of  cases,  it  is  desirable  that  machines  of  this 
type  be  shipped  set  up,  all  ready  to  run,  after  the  slush- 
ing has  been  cleaned  off. 

^*As  shown  in  illustration  No.  1,  it  is  our  custom  to 
first  provide  a  platform  or  base.  This  base  is  seen  to 
consist  of  three  longitudinal  skids  or  heavy  timbers,  cov- 
ered by  a  flooring  of  heavy  boards.  These  skids  are 
marked,  respectively.  A,  A^,  A^,  and  the  flooring  is  dis- 
tinguished as  **B.**    Upon  referring  to  illustration  No. 

2,  an  end  view  of  this  base  platform  is  shown  As  an 
additional  feature  on  this  particular  base,  a  rectangular 
framework  will  be  seen,  which  is  temporarily  attached 
to  the  frame,  and  designated  as  **C.*'  The  purpose  of 
this  frame  **C'*  will  be  clearly  seen  in  illustration  No. 

3,  where  it  is  shown  at  the  top  of  the  picture  in  position 
forming  the  framework  for  the  cover  of  the  case. 

'^Parenthetically,  we  might  say  that  it  is  our  custom 
to  make  up  these  complete  bases  and  cover  pieces,  **C,'* 
ahead  of  time,  nailing  them  together  temporarily,  so  that 
they  may  be  stowed  away  readily.  We  carry  a  consider- 
able stock  of  them  on  hand,  so  as  to  lose  as  little  time  as 
possible  in  packing  and  shipping,  when  the  machines 
begin  to  arrive  in  our  shipping  department  from  the 
inspection  department. 

''Returning  to  the  base,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  pur- 
pose of  the  central  skid  A^  is  to  carry  the  weight  of  the 
side  legs  of  the  machine,  giving  a  solid  foundation  for  it, 
and  affording  as  well  a  means  by  which  these  legs  are 
fastened  to  the  skids.    In  all  cases  it  is  desirable  that 


366  EXPORT  PACKING 

skids  be  placed  below  and  parallel  with  the  legs  of  any 
machine  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  them. 

**The  machine  is  lowered  into  position  on  the  base  and 
bolted  thereto,  and  a  strong  central  support,  *'D,*'  is 
then  put  in  place  to  support  the  center  of  the  machine. 
Wooden  wedges  are  driven  between  the  support  **D" 
and  the  bottom  of  the  machine,  and  are  nailed  in  place. 
These  wedges  prevent  the  support  shrinking  away  as  the 
lumber  dries.  The  base  of  the  support  **D''  is  made  long 
enough  to  stretch  across  two  of  the  base  skids.  The  four 
upright  corner  boards,  E,  E^,  E^,  E^,  are  then  nailed  in 
place  to  the  foundation,  and  the  upper  framework  **C'' 
is  then  nailed  into  place  between  these  uprights.  The 
side  supports  *'F*'  and  the  end  supports  *'G^*  are  then 
secured  firmly  into  place. 

**The  supporting  timbers  indicated  as  H,  H^  H^,  etc., 
are  then  fitted  and  well  nailed  in  position.  These  tim- 
bers are  so  placed  and  disposed  about  the  machine  as  to 
effectually  support  and  buttress  it  against  the  sides  of 
the  case,  so  that  no  movement  of  the  machine  can  pos- 
sibly occur,  whether  the  case  is  turned  on  end,  on  its 
sides,  or  upside  down.  These  supporting  timbers  will, 
of  course,  vary  with  the  character  and  type  of  the  ma- 
chine, but  in  all  cases  they  should  be  of  a  good  quality  of 
lumber,  and  very  firmly  secured  in  place,  so  that  they 
cannot  possibly  slip  in  the  event  of  the  side  boards  giving 
way,  or  of  the  lumber  shrinking  in  the  course  of  time. 

**  Illustration  No.  4  shows  the  opposite  side  of  the 
machine.  When  all  supporting  timbers  described  above 
have  been  mounted  into  place,  the  side  boards  are  then 
added,  as  shown  in  illustration  No.  5,  and  when  these 
have  been  completed  and  securely  fastened,  the  cover, 
'*  J,"  is  nailed  on. 

**It  should  be  noted  that  in  all  cases  the  tongued  and 
grooved  or  what  is  known  in  the  trade  as  li/4"  matched 
spruce  is  used  for  casing.  It  is  desirable  that  the  upper 
corners  of  the  case  be  beveled  off,  as  shown  at  **K,"  so 
as  to  prevent  the  corner  cover  boards  splintering  by 
angular  blows.    Heavy  band  iron,  of  at  least  1"  in  width. 


THE  PACKING  OF  MACHINERY  367 

is  then  carried  entirely  around  the  case,  in  two  places, 
and  is  also  carried  around  the  cover,  in  two  places,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration  at  **L.*'  These  band  irons  are 
always  carried  transversely  of  the  boards,  so  as  to  hold 
them  together.  Referring  to  illustration  No.  1,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  ends  of  the  skids  are  beveled  off,  as 
shown  at  *'M,''  and  upon  referring  to  illustration  No.  5 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  end  covering  boards  are  not 
allowed  to  go  down  over  the  ends  of  the  skids,  and  that 
the  side  boards  are  not  allowed  to  touch  the  floor  within 
half  an  inch.  When  so  packed  and  cased,  the  completed 
box  is  free  to  be  rolled  or  handled  without  injuring  the 
ends  of  the  boards  forming  the  sides  or  ends  of  the  case. 

*  *  The  second  type  of  machine  with  which  our  descrip- 
tion deals  is  a  solid,  compact  type  of  spring  coiling  ma- 
chine having  few,  if  any,  open  spaces,  very  heavy  and 
calling  for  a  slightly  different  method  of  packing. 

**As  shown  in  photograph  No.  6,  the  base  is  made  up 
of  two  thicknesses  of  boards,  VA"  and  1%"  respectively, 
reenforced  and  fastened  to  six  longitudinal  skids.  This 
provides  a  very  substantial  platform  or  base  upon  which 
the  machine  is  lowered  and  to  which  it  is  bolted  firmly. 
The  two  thicknesses  of  boards  are  indicated  at  **N.'* 
In  this  case,  it  should  be  said  that  the  machine  is  one  of 
our  No.  5  coilers,  weighing  approximately  ten  tons. 

'*The  comer  supporting  boards  *'0"  are  then  nailed 
into  place  with  the  top  frame  **P''  in  position,  as  in  the 
method  of  casing  previously  described,  and  a  series  of 
struts  and  supports  shown  at  **R''  and  ''S*'  in  photo- 
graphs Nos.  6  and  7  are  put  into  place  and  nailed  firmly 
on  all  four  sides.  At  the  same  time,  similar  struts  **T^^ 
are  secured  to  the  top  frame  ^*P.*'  Such  a  structure 
stiffens  the  whole  case  very  materially,  affording  means 
to  secure  the  side  and  end  buttresses  and  supports,  and 
giving  at  the  same  time  very  substantial  support  to  the 
covering  boards. 

**Upon  this  foundation  Ve  now  proceed  to  fit  in  the 
solid  buttresses  shown  in  photographs  Nos.  6,  7  and  8, 
and  indicated  at  **U,*'  which  effectually  buttress  the 


368  EXPORT  PACKING 

framing  for  the  four  sides  and  cover  against  the  solid 
body  of  the  machine.  When  all  the  necessary  struts  and 
supports  have  been  mounted  in  place  and  firmly  secured, 
and  when  all  of  the  loose  machine  parts  which  are  to  be 
shipped  inside  the  case  have  been  firmly  secured,  so  that 
they  cannot  break  loose  in  any  way,  the  side  and  top 
covers  are  firmly  nailed  in  position,  as  previously 
described,  and  are  secured  with  band  iron.  Photograph 
No.  9  shows  the  completed  machine. 

**An  important  point  is  the  broad  band  with  arrows 
shown  as  **V"  in  photograph  No.  9,  which  indicates  the 
center  of  gravity  of  the  case  and  is  so  marked.  This  is 
important  as  it  indicates  the  point  at  which  the  sling 
chains  are  to  be  carried  around  the  case  in  transhipping. 

**It  is,  of  course,  understood  that  where  shipments 
are  being  packed  for  foreign  countries,  a  first  rate  qual- 
ity of  slush  is  used  on  all  bright  parts  and  all  machined 
parts  so  as  to  prevent  rusting.  Small  and  delicate  parts 
should  be  oiled  and  wrapped  in  oiled  paper. 

*^So  far  as  lumber  is  concerned  we  use  spruce  in 
practically  all  cases  whenever  it  can  be  procured.  We 
formerly  used  1%"  in  our  heavier  cases,  but  found  that 
by  reenforcing  cases  inside  very  strongly  we  could  use 
lighter  lumber  and  are  now  employing  1%"  matched 
spruce,  saving  additional  expense  and  some  extra  freight 
charges.  For  the  flooring  of  the  bases  of  the  heavier 
machines  we  use  1%"  spruce. 

**We  make  skids  for  our  smaller  machines  of  3"x6" 
timbers,  using  on  the  larger  machines  4"x6"  and  4"x8".'^ 


CHAPTER  XIV 
PACKING  OF  AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY 

IDENTICALLY  the  same  advice  and  instructions 
which  have  been  offered  in  other  chapters  in  this 
volume  relating  to  the  export  packing  of  machinery, 
and  in  Captain  Knowlton's  and  Mr.  Fitz  Gerald's  special 
chapters,  apply  with  full  and  equal  force  to  the  packing 
of  all  forms  of  agricultural  machinery,  and  should  be 
studied  with  care  and  attention  by  every  exporter  of  the 
latter  class  of  machinery.  There  may  be  little  of  a  special 
nature  to  repeat  in  this  chapter  as  applying  specifically 
to  shipments  of  agricultural  machinery,  yet  it  is  believed 
that  the  reports  and  explanations  which  have  courteously 
been  supplied  to  the  author  by  a  large  number  of  prom- 
inent manufacturers  and  exporters  cannot  fail  to  be  of 
interest  and  value. 

In  the  packing  of  agricultural  implements  great  care 
must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  lumber  used  is  thoroughly 
clired,  and  green  lumber  should  never  be  used.  Strength 
and  durability  are  two  extremely  important  points  in  this 
sort  of  packing,  and  green  lumber  will  be  found  to  offer 
little  or  no  security  and  will  almost  invariably  lead  to 
loss  and  trouble.  As  a  general  rule  cases  containing  this 
class  of  goods  are  stored  in  the  hold  of  the  ship  for  trans- 
portation, the  heat  from  the  boilers  and  furnaces  quickly 
dries  out  green  lumber,  and  the  speedy  result  is  that 
nails  are  loosened  or  drawn  out  entirely,  and  the  box 
or  case  either  falls  to  pieces  or  is  rendered  practically 
useless.  It  frequently  happens,  when  green  lumber  is 
used,  that  if  the  attempt  is  made  to  hoist  the  package 
from  the  hold  it  falls  to  pieces,  and  the  only  thing  left 
of  the  machine  can  be  easily  shoveled  from  the  bowels 
of  the  ship. 


370  EXPORT  PACKING 

Every  effort  should  also  be  made  to  pack  the  imple- 
ments as  compactly  as  possible  so  as  to  occupy  the  small- 
est amount  of  space,  and  for  this  purpose  the  machine 
should  be  knocked  down  just  as  far  as  the  character  of 
construction  admits.  However,  when  the  machines  are  so 
knocked  down  instruction  sheets  for  assembling  must  be 
most  carefully  worked  out  and  enclosed  with  the  package. 
The  rural  classes  of  foreign  countries  know,  as  a  rule, 
little  about  mechanics,  and  if  the  purchaser  is  going  to  be 
protected  to  the  extent  of  saving  as  much  freight  as  pos- 
sible, he  should  also  be  protected  to  the  extent  of  enabling 
him  to  assemble  the  machine  without  loss  of  time  and 
without  being  compelled  to  call  in  an  expert  mechanic 
from,  perhaps,  some  distant  point. 

A  manufacturing  company  widely  known  throughout 
the  world,  in  sending  a  number  of  photographs  illustrat- 
ing its  packing  methods,  calls  attention  to  an  article 
which  recently  appeared  in  Tractor  and  Trailer  under  the 
title  of  *^ Boxing  Agricultural  Machinery  for  Export.'' 
This  article  was  written  by  Monnett  B.  Davis  of  the  J.  I. 
Case  Plow  Works  Company.  From  it  the  following  ex- 
tracts may  be  quoted:  ^^A  great  deal  has  been  written 
concerning  the  proper  packing  of  export  shipments ;  and, 
judging  from  the  reports  of  various  trade  representa- 
tives abroad,  even  more  might  be  read  by  manufacturers 
with  profit  to  themselves  and  to  our  foreign  trade  in  gen- 
eral. Most  writers  make  very  sharp  criticisms  on  meth- 
ods now  used,  but  very  few  suggest  better  methods  to  be 
substituted. 

*^It  is  our  purpose  to  set  forth  in  a  short  article  a 
brief  description  of  how  one  company  packs  goods  to  the 
satisfaction  of  their  foreign  customers.  There  is  nothing 
new  or  unusual  in  their  methods ;  we  merely  are  attempt- 
ing to  offer  a  few  practical  suggestions  for  exporters  who 
are  having  trouble  in  packing  goods. 

**  Manufacturers  in  many  cases  do  not  appreciate  the 
importance  of  careful  packing  for  export.  They  use  all 
care  and  expend  real  money  in  getting  in  touch  with  their 
foreign  prospect  and  in  securing  the  order.     The  steps 


-T 


Courtesy  of  Mesta  Machine   Co. 
Packing  of  Extra  Heavy  Machinery. 

It  is  the  practice  to  place  boards  over  finished  bored  holes  and  bearings  and 
to  wrap  ioith  burlap  and  protect  with  narrow  strips  of  wood  the  smooth 
finished  surfaces. 


tunilisij  (fj  Worthington  Pump  and  Machinery  Corp. 
Packing   Naked   Goods. 
Shows  how  condensers  are  prepared  for  export  shipment  when  support  saddles 
or  feet   are   not   cast    integral  with   shell.      This   clearly  indicates   the  method 
used  and  the  reason  for  preparing  material  of   this  character  in   this   manner. 

37X 


372 


PACKING  AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY   373 

thus  far  they  deem  of  prime  importance,  as  indeed  they 
are. 

**  After  being  adyised  that  payment  will  be  received 
for  shipment  at  seaport  this  same  manufacturer  loses  a 
great  deal  of  his  interest  in  the  deal :  for  him  the  impor- 
tant part  of  the  show  is  over.  While  the  manufacturer's 
main  interest  is  in  getting  his  money,  he  must  not  lose 
sight  of  the  fact  that  his  customer  has  paid  that  money 
and  that  his  main  interest  is  in  receiving  the  goods  in 
good  condition,  so  as  to  realize  profit  from  them.  If  an 
exporter  wishes  to  hold  his  customers  it  is  very  important 
that  he  take  extreme  care  with  each  step  in  the  transac- 
tion. 

*'Pack  for  Safe  Arrival.— In  packing  goods  for  export 
the  point  of  prime  importance  is  to  have  same  reach  the 
warehouse  of  the  foreign  customer  in  good  condition. 
Absolute  security  might  be  obtained  by  very  expensive 
and  very  heavy  packing;  but  there  is  another  point  to  be 
watched,  and  that  is  expense  involved  which  is  borne  by 
the  customer. 

**  While  our  foreign  buyers  are  willing  and  anxious  to 
pay  what  is  necessary  to  insure  the  arrival  of  goods  in 
good  condition,  they  at  the  same  time  appreciate  every 
step  which  diminishes  packing  and  freight  costs  without 
materially  reducing  security  of  shipment.  Thus  the  ob- 
ject should  be  to  pack  goods  in  the  smallest  space  and  at 
the  least  expense  compatible  with  making  certain  that 
same  will  arrive  in  foreign  port  in  condition  to  be  of 
value  to  the  importer. 

**In  many  cases  an  exporter  feels  that  his  customer  is 
protected  by  insurance.  This  feeling  is  really  unwar- 
ranted, as  in  the  first  place  the  customer  has  bought  the 
goods  to  start  doing  business  in  a  certain  line;  in  case 
these  goods  are  damaged  he  cannot  do  that  even  though 
he  realizes  no  loss.  This  discourages  him  in  practically 
every  case  and  generally  results  in  no  further  orders.  In 
many  cases  where  there  is  damage  a  great  deal  of  in- 
convenience results  to  the  importer  in  establishing  his 
claim;  and  in  many  cases  he  must  stand  losses  himself. 


374  EXPORT  PACKING 

**  *  Making  Sure'  Builds  Business. — The  greatest  ob- 
stacle to  be  overcome  is  inertia  and  carelessness.  The 
best  scheme  carelessly  carried  out  will  bring  only  indiffer- 
ent results.  The  most  important  thing  is  the  individual 
who  has  charge  of  packing  goods  for  export.  This  man 
must  be  systematic,  careful,  and  above  all,  conscientious. 
In  case  he  is  inclined  to  'let  things  go'  he  will  lose  many 
valuable  customers  for  his  concern.  It  is  a  fatal  error 
to  allow  any  machine  to  go  out  with  any  important  part 
missing.  It  would  be  ten  times  better  not  to  make  the 
shipment  at  all. 

**A  very  good  system  must  be  inaugurated  and  car- 
ried out  by  a  careful,  painstaking,  conscientious  man  to 
see  that  every  machine  goes  out  complete.  The  man 
needed  is  one  who  will,  in  case  of  doubt,  entirely  unpack 
a  machine  Ho  make  sure.' 

**We  know  of  cases  where  the  most  serious  disappoint- 
ments to  foreign  customers  have  resulted  from  a  very 
small  but  important  part  being  left  ouf  on  an  expensive 
machine.  This  was  done  simply  through  inexcusable 
carelessness  in  the  packing  department.  When  such  mis- 
takes occur  in  domestic  shipments  they  do  not  result  in 
serious  loss  due  to  the  fact  that  the  dealer  or  jobber  in 
question  simply  wires  the  factory  and  receives  the  part  in 
a  few  days.  In  Bombay  or  Calcutta  it  would  mean  a 
season's  work  lost  at  least:  imagine  the  effect  upon  the 
customer ! 

**One  Successful  Plan. — Machinery,  especially,  must 
be  completely  disassembled  so  as  to  pack  in  the  smallest 
number  of  cubic  feet  and  to  prevent  bending,  springing 
or  breaking  of  parts.  To  make  the  description  very  con- 
crete, a  particular  implement  is  taken  and  carried 
through  the  process,  mentioning  the  smallest  details.  A 
three  bottom  engine  gang  plow  is  taken  as  an  example. 
This  plow  weighs  960  pounds  net  and  1,090  pounds  gross. 
Thus  it  will  be  noted  that  the  weight  of  the  packing  is 
only  130  pounds.  The  cubic  measurements  of  the  crated 
plow  is  16%  cubic  feet,  which  means  66  pounds  per  cubic 
foot.    The  dimensions  of  the  box  are  such  that  it  is  just 


376 


PACKING  AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY   377 

long  enough  to  admit  the  beams,  just  wide  enough  to  hold 
the  wheels,  and  just  high  enough  to  admit  the  remainder 
of  the  parts  without  any  lost  space  (see  illustration, 
page  372).  The  plow  must  be  packed  in  just  a  certain  way 
or  it  will  not  fit  in  the  case.  A  further  advantage  is  gained 
in  that  the  beams  and  wheels  furnish  very  strong  in- 
terior bracing. 

*  *  The  boxes  are  made  of  carefully  selected  1-inch  gum 
wood  which  has  given  very  good  service  throughout,  and 
all  nails  are  cement-coated.  A  number  of  additional  pre- 
cautions are  taken  to  insure  goods  arriving  in  good  con- 
dition and  their  being  assembled  easily.  In  the  first  place 
mold-boards,  bolt  threads  and  other  exposed  metal  parts 
are  coated  with  an  anti-rust  compound  similar  to  that 
used  by  the  United  States  Ordnance  Department  on  arms, 
to  thoroughly  protect  them  from  rust.  Another  precau- 
tion taken  is  to  leave  bolt  in  hole  where  it  belongs  with 
nut  screwed  down  sufficiently  to  prevent  its  losing  out. 

*'Many  companies  pack  all  bolts  and  nuts  in  a  box  to- 
gether ;  but  it  has  been  found  a  very  great  help  to  men 
abroad,  especially  if  they  are  inexperienced,  to  have  the 
bolt  left  where  it  belongs,  thus  greatly  facilitating  setting 
up.  In  illustration  page  375  we  show  box  which  holds  the 
plow  in  question  and  the  disassembled  plow  spread  out 
before  the  box.  In  packing  these  parts  straw  or  excelsior 
is  used  to  make  the  packing  tight  and  to  prevent  the  parts 
from  being  damaged  by  too  much  jostling  about.  The 
completed  case  is  shown  also.  After  the  lid  has  been 
nailed  on  the  whole  is  reenforced  by  three  metal  straps. 
These  are  not  the  flimsy  tin  which  is  often  used  on  pack- 
ing cases  and  is  seen  even  on  very  large  boxes,  but  is  a 
very  heavy  gauge  band  iron  %  inch  wide.  It  is  there  for 
real  service  and  not  for  looks.  As  above  stated,  plows 
and  other  implements  packed  as  described  above  arrive  at 
their  destinations  in  very  excellent  condition." 

Instruction  Sheets.— At  least  one  consideration  in 
connection  with  exporting  of  agricultural  machinery 
deserves  emphasis— that  is  the  necessity  of  including  in 
every  shipment  and  in  every  case  very  simple  and  ele- 


378  EXPORT  PACKING 

mentary  instruction  sheets  in  the  language  of  the  farmers 
of  the  country  to  which  the  shipment  is  destined,  in  order 
that  there  may  be  no  difficulties  and  no  delays  in  erecting 
the  machines  by  inexperienced  agricultural  labor,  which 
is  not  often  experienced  in  engineering  or  even  mechan- 
ical work.  Such  instruction  sheets  should  not  only  con- 
sist of  lists  of  the  various  parts  contained  in  each  case, 
but  should  describe  them,  referring  to  them  by  numbers 
which  should  be  conspicuously  stamped  in  or  painted  on 
the  respective  parts.  Machines  which  are  dismounted 
should  always  be  accompanied  by  drawings  and  photo- 
graphs showing  exactly  how  the  parts  are  to  go  together, 
and  w^hat  the  whole  looks  like  when  completed.  Various 
ways  of  identifying  different  parts  may  be  adopted,  be- 
sides the  custom  sometimes  adopted  of  stenciling  vari- 
colored lines,  circles  or  other  devices  across  adjoining 
parts  in  such  a  fashion  that  half  of  the  mark  will  appear 
on  each  part  when  disassembled. 

Such  advice  applies  no  matter  if  shipments  are  in- 
tended for  dealers,  merchants,  or  distributors  in  a  given 
market,  because  frequently  cases  containing  machines  in 
knocked  down  shape  are  forwarded  by  such  distributors 
directly  to  their  farmer  customers,  who  may  want  to  set 
up  and  assemble  the  machines  immediately,  without  wait- 
ing for  the  possibly  delayed  arrival  of  the  distributor's 
own  engineers  and  mechanics.  In  any  event,  the  more 
simple  and  intelligible  the  instructions  given  with  the 
list  of  contents  for  each  case  shipped,  the  better  the  re- 
sulting satisfaction  is  bound  to  be. 

Packing  of  Mowing  and  Harvesting  Machines. — One 
of  the  largest  manufacturers  and  exporters  of  harvesting 
machinery  in  the  world  writes  the  following  interesting 
letter  regarding  its  packing: 

**  Harvesting  machines  can  be  packed  in  relatively 
small  packages,  for  convenience  of  handling.  They  are 
also  constructed  to  facilitate  compactness  in  packing. 
Our  present  packing  is  the  result  of  long  experience 
and  the  design  in  some  measure  conforms  to  require- 
ments of  packing.    Tractors  and  heavy  engines,  on  the 


„      PACKING  AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY    379 

other  hand,  cannot  be  *  knocked  down'  or  disassembled  to 
anything  like  the  extent  of  harvesting  machines,  and  they 
also  have  more  delicately  finished  parts.  For  this  reason 
they  require  different  treatment  in  packing. 

'^Harvesting  machines  are  'knocked  down'  or  taken 
apart  to  an  extent  which  will  facilitate  packing  compactly 
and  also  to  make  a  package  of  convenient  size  for  hand- 
ling on  a  hand  truck.  We  aim  to  not  exceed  1,000  pounds, 
or  less  than  200  pounds.  There  is  no  object  in  disassem- 
bling to  an  extent  which  would  increase  the  weight  of 
any  package  over  56  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

''We  use  cement-coated  wire  nails.  This  coating  is 
important,  to  make  the  nails  hold.  Polished  wire  nails 
pull  out  very  easily.  There  should  be  not  less  than  two 
in  the  end  of  any  board  and  not  over  4  inches  apart  in 
wide  boards.  This  may  include  the  nail  through  band 
iron  or  corner  iron. 

"We  use  lumber  surfaced  one  side.  This  gives  a  de- 
sirable uniformity  of  thickness  and  of  cubic  measurement 
and  makes  easy  stenciling  on  more  than  one  face  of  the 
package.  The  lumber  is  usually  %"  or  V  rough,  surfaced 
to  13/16"  or  15/16"  respectively.  There  must  be  no  brash 
or  cross-grain  pieces.  We  use  corner  posts  in  packages — 
usually  2"  x  2",  or  1%"  x  lyo"  for  small  packages. 

"We  use  both  closed  boxes  and  open  crates.  We  pre- 
fer crates  when  contents  of  packages  are  such  that  they 
can  be  used. 

"Except  for  light  packages,  we  use  band  iron.  We 
use  %"  23  U.  S.  gauge.  The  amount  used  depends  on  the 
size,  shape,  weight  and  construction  of  the  package.  Band 
iron  should  have  one  nail  to  each  board  and  nails  not 
farther  than  6"  apart.  It  is  desirable  to  chamfer  the 
corner  of  the  package  at  the  edge  where  the  band  iron 
goes  over.  On  crates  we  frequently  use  corner  irons  or 
comer  clips.  These  should  extend  over  each  side  about 
3"  or  4" — for  heavy  packages,  farther. 

"All  harvesting  machines  must  be  braced  or  blocked 
firmly  to  the  main  part  of  the  machine  in  the  package. 
This  does  not  refer  to  boxes  of  small  pieces  or  fixtures. 


380  EXPORT  PACKING 

These  braces  should  run  from  side  to  side  when  oppor- 
tunity offers.  Braces  or  blocks  must  not  attach  to  parts 
which  will  not  stand  test  set  out  below.  Crates  and  boxes 
of  narrow  boards  must  usually  be  braced  against  diagonal 
strain. 

**Long,  narrow  side  pieces  (about  V  x  6'  or  longer) 
must  be  made  of  11/4"  dressed  to  1  3/16",  or  a  thinner 
lumber  reenforced  by  strips  running  lengthwise.  All 
wide  side  pieces  of  flat  packages  should  be  prevented 
from  splitting  by  cross  pieces. 

*'For  determining  the  appropriateness  of  any  new 
packing,  we  test  by  forcibly  pushing  each  over  the  end 
twice;  that  is  to  say,  twice  over  and  twice  back,  then 
over  the  side  twice  and  twice  back  on  a  wooden  floor. 
This  must  not  damage  the  package  or  contents.  The 
package  is  then  dropped  from  a  wagon-loading  platform 
3  or  4  feet  high  to  a  pavement  or  hard  ground,  but  not 
a  cement  pavement.  In  this  latter  test  the  package  must 
not  be  broken  to  an  extent  to  let  out  small  parts  or  to 
break  parts,  but  the  package  itself  may  be  some  strained 
or  out  of  shape. 

**The  projecting  portions  of  heavy  castings  having 
narrow  neck  must  be  taken  off,  as  they  will  break  off 
by  jarring.  Grey  iron  extended  parts  must  be  kept 
%"  to  1"  away  from  the  covering,  or  the  give  of  the 
boards  will  cause  breakage.  Heavy  cast  pieces  should 
not  rest  together  but  must  be  cushioned  or  separated  by 
wood  brace  or  block. 

**  Angle  iron  sills,  or  projections,  or  malleable  iron 
projections  or  shafts,  can  sometimes  come  through  the 
covering  but  not  beyond  it.  This  is  in  order  to  better 
condense  the  package  or  to  support  the  other  parts. 

**  Bright  parts  are  protected  by  greasing  with  heavy 
black  oil  to  avoid  rusting  in  salt  water  transportation. 
Cotton  duck  parts  are  wrapped  in  tar  paper  to  prevent 
mildew. 

**Tongued  and  grooved  boards  are  rarely  used  by  us, 
but  in  some  large  packages  are  used  for  top  and  bottom 
boards.    Some  increased  strength  can  be  secured  thereby 


Courtesy  of  Avery  Co. 

Packing  of  Threshing  Machine. 

Bottom  of  crate  and  five  cross  bars  are  made  of  2"  x  8"  o<ik  plank  doubled. 
Frame  and  bracing  pre  made  of  i"  x  }"  yellow  pine  of  good  stock. 


I ;    .1 '  ery   Co. 

Completed  Case  fob  Threshing  Machine. 
Casing  lumber  is  1"  x  8"  yellow  pine.     Comer  irons  are  made  of  2"  x  2"  26" 
gauge  iron.     Strap   iron   is    2"    iride  and   2ti"  gauge.     Gross   weight   of  case  is 
7560  lbs.;  net  weight  5796  lbs.     Case  measures  46"  x  92"  x  229". 

381 


Courtesy   of   Litacher  Lite   Corp. 

Packing  a  Farm  Electric  Light  Plant. 

At   left   lighting   plant  complete   on   standard  skids   before  packing;   at  right 
machine  protected  by  a  dust  cover  of  heavy  shipping  paper. 


Courtesy  of  Litscher  Lite   Corp. 

Complete  Packages  for  Farm  Lighting  Plant. 

The  box  shown  at  left  is  made  of  heavy  tongued  and  grooved  lumber  and  is 
iron  strapped.  Note  ends  of  bolts  ichich  prevent  shifting  inside  of  box.  At  right 
is  shown  four  boxes  containing  plant  when  disassembled  for  foreign  shipment 
involving  muleback  transportation.  Effort  is  made  to  keep  these  packages  below 
160  lbs.  each  in  weight. 


382 


PACKING  AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY    383 

when  it  is  not  convenient  to   cross-brace  underneath. 

*'In  packing  machines  which  are  taken  apart  consid- 
erably it  is  desirable  to  indicate  on  the  package  box  *  Open 
on  this  side/ 

*^  Carrying  wheels  can  often  be  shipped  best  without 
boxing  or  crating.  Same  applies  to  tongues  or  poles. 
The  latter  are  often  banded  together  in  small  multiples 
and  thereby  reduce  the  cubic  measurement  of  each.'' 

A  large  export  manufacturer  writes  as  follows  in 
regard  to  export  packing:  **Our  machines  have  been 
packed  for  and  shipped  into  every  agricultural  section 
of  the  world.  This,  of  course,  has  required  special  pack- 
ing for  different  countries  in  order  to  meet  both  transpor- 
tation conditions,  such  as  muleback  packing  for  Bolivia, 
or  special  tariff  conditions  in  force  in  various  countries. 
While  we  endeavor  to  standardize  our  packing  as  much 
as  possible,  such  standardization  is  based  upon  transpor- 
tation and  import  conditions  of  the  country  to  which  ship- 
ment is  destined. 

**As  an  indication  of  the  test  to  which  our  packing  is 
subjected,  we  test  our  packages  by  carrying  them  several 
flights  by  elevator  and  dropping  them  through  the  ele- 
vator shaft  to  the  concrete  floor  below.  The  packages  are 
then  reopened  and  a  careful  investigation  made  to  in- 
dicate just  what  breakage  or  shifting,  if  any,  has  taken 
place. 

**To  some  countries  we  supply  machines  in  a  semi- 
assembled  condition ;  in  other  countries  very  completely 
knocked  down.  In  this  latter  event,  as  all  parts  are 
clearly  numbered  and  boxes  contain  very  detailed  in- 
struction books,  the  consignee  has  no  real  difficulty  in 
assembling  machines  properly.  We  are  herewith  send- 
ing you  an  illustration  of  our  packing  for  export  of  a 
mowing  machine '*  (see  page  376). 

Packing  of  Threshing  Machines.— A  manufacturer  of 
threshing  machines  sends  us  photographs,  shown  on 
page  381,  and  states:  *' Export  packing  is  a  very  ex- 
pensive operation  just  now,  owing  to  the  heavy  cost  of 
lumber  and  labor.    In  a  main  way,  our  method  is  as  fol- 


384  EXPORT  PACKING 

lows :  We  draw  the  entire  machine  with  all  its  equipment 
upon  a  platform.  We  take  off  the  axles  and  wheels,  take 
out  the  shafting,  take  off  the  pulleys,  remove  the  cylin- 
der. We  pack  the  cylinder  separately,  also  the  shafting. 
The  pulleys  and  all  its  parts  we  pack  inside  the  thresher. 
We  also  place  the  axles  and  the  four  thresher  wheels 
inside  the  package. 

*^We  use  a  2"  oak  bottom,  using  three  planks  and 
filling  in  between  with  1"  boards;  then  we  use  2"  x  4" 
for  the  frame  at  the  sides,  some  set  edgeways,  some  flat- 
ways. We  use  a  light  grade  of  pine  to  cover  the  package, 
and  it  should  be  closed  up  pretty  tight  so  that  bolts  and 
nuts  will  not  shake  out  if  they  get  loose.  The  main  thing, 
of  course,  is  to  condense  the  package  into  as  small  a  space 
as  possible,  and  this  can  be  done  by  putting  as  many  of 
the  loose  parts  and  other  accessories  that  are  to  go  along 
with  this  shipment,  such  as  belts  and  canvas  covers,  in- 
side the  main  package.  If  there  is  a  self-feeder  to  go, 
we  pack  it  in  a  separate  case. 

*^You  will,  therefore,  see  that  the  basis  of  the  thing 
is  to  get  a  good  solid  frame  which  we  get  out  of  oak  plank 
and  the  2"  x  4".  The  rest  is  not  so  material.  We  have 
some  customers  who  want  a  special  package  and  ask  us 
to  use  2"  lumber,  but  when  they  find  out  the  present  cost, 
they  generally  change  their  mind. 

*  *  To  give  you  an  idea  of  the  size  of  the  ordinary 
thresher,  we  may  mention  the  dimensions  of  our  32  x  52 
machine.  This  machine  with  self-feed  and  wind  stacker 
weighs,  gross,  13,930  pounds,  net  10,420  pounds,  and 
occupies  1,226  cubic  feet.  The  largest  package  in  the 
shipment  measures  72"  x  97"  x  271",  1,090  cubic  feet,  and 
weighs  11,180  pounds. 

**In  starting  to  pack  a  new  machine,  we  first  dismantle 
the  machine  and  get  it  as  near  the  shape  we  want  to  pack 
it  as  possible,  then  taking  its  measurements,  cut  our  lum- 
ber. If,  after  packing  one  machine,  we  find  we  can  still 
further  reduce  the  package,  we  do  it.  Our  foreign  pack- 
ing department  has  standing  instructions  to  always  be 
figuring  on  making  packages  smaller  if  possible.'^ 


PACKING  AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY    385 

Packing  of  Windmills. — The  following  extract  is  from 
an  interesting  letter  of  a  large  manufacturer  of  wind- 
mills: '* Windmill  toweVs  consist  of  the  following  parts: 
anchor  posts ;  iron  corner  posts ;  iron  cross  girts ;  braces 
(wire  rods);  ladder  for  climbing  tower;  wooden  plat- 
form. 

*  *  If  only  one  mill  and  tower  are  packed  per  order,  the 
angle-iron  corner  posts  of  the  tower  are  each  made  up 
of  ten-foot  lengths,  the  number  depending  upon  the 
height  of  the  tower.  These  lengths  are  placed  with  their 
angles  fitting  into  one  another,  and  the  wire  braces  are 
packed  inside,  their  ends  being  bent  over,  so  that  they 
will  not  exceed  the  height  of  the  posts.  All  are  tied  to- 
gether at  top  and  bottom  with  wire,  and  the  address  tag 
is  tied  on  with  wire.  The  bundles  are  also  marked  with 
white  paint.  The  iron  cross  girts  are  tied  similarly  into 
a  separate  bundle,  and  another  bundle  is  made  of  the  four 
anchor  posts,  which  are  to  be  anchored  in  the  ground. 
The  ladder,  also,  knocked  down  into  lengths  whose  num- 
ber depends  upon  the  height  of  the  tower,  is  bundled 
similarly.  The  bolts  and  washers  are  packed  in  a  box. 
The  wooden  platform  is  crated  separately. 

**  Windmills :  the  vane  sheet  is  packed  in  a  crate.  The 
fans  and  arms,  which  are  knocked  down  into  from  four  to 
eight  sections,  are  packed  in  another  crate,  one  section 
on  top  of  another.  The  bolts  and  other  fixtures  go  in 
one  box ;  the  central  ironwork  in  another  box. 

**If  several  mills  and  towers  are  packed  for  same 
order,  the  towers,  being  compact  in  bulk,  are  rated  on 
a  weight  basis;  therefore  they  are  packed  in  the  same 
way  as  above,  without  any  effort  to  reduce  the  measure- 
ment. The  wooden  platforms,  however,  are  crated  sev- 
eral in  a  box. 

**The  mills  are  so  packed  as  to  include  as  nearly  as 
possible  one  long  ton  of  weight  per  40  cubic  feet  of 
measurement,  for  the  steamship  company,  having  the 
option  of  basing  rates  on  weight  or  on  measurement, 
counts  40  cubic  feet  to  a  long  ton.  If  the  measurement 
per  ton  exceeds  this,  the  company  will  naturally  choose 


386  •  EXPORT  PACKING 

to  charge  by  measurement  and  therefore  the  shipper  will 
have  to  pay  for  more  than  the  actual  weight.  Therefore, 
shipments  are  made  as  follows,  wherever  possible:  six 
6-foot  mills;  five  8-foot  mills;  three  10-foot  mills;  two 
12-foot  mills.  Space  is  saved  by  knocking  down  the  fans 
entirely,  so  that  one  lies  perfectly  flat  upon  the  other, 
and  a  very  small  crate  can  be  used. 

Farm  Electric  Light  Plants. — An  experienced  manu- 
facturer and  shipper  writes:  '*Our  product  is  a  farm  or 
rural  lighting  plant,  consisting  of  a  gasoline  engine 
mounted  upon  the  same  base  with  an  electric  generator, 
switchboard  and  radiator.  We  are  sending  photographs 
we  have  had  prepared  for  you,  showing  our  method  of 
packing  these  plants  for  export  shipment.  You  should 
note  that  whereas  we  pack  in  open  crates  for  domestic 
shipment,  we  invariably  use  tight  boxes  for  exporting. 
All  plants  are  mounted  on  skids — which  form  the  base  for 
both  domestic  and  export  shipment^ — and  are  built  up  on 
2"  X  4''  and  2"  x  6"  lumber. 

**We  usually  ship  these  plants  in  integral  units,  but 
sometimes  have  to  disassemble  them  for  countries  of 
mountainous  character,  where  the  cases  have  to  be  trans- 
ported on  muleback.  We  then  make  an  effort  to  keep 
packages  below  160  pounds  each,  as,  for  example,  in  ship- 
ments to  Colombia.  Photographs  (see  page  382)  illus- 
trate the  plant  in  a  single  case,  and  precisely  the  same 
plant  dismounted  and  packed  in  four  cases.  These  four- 
small  cases  have  the  following  measurements  and 
weights : 


1  case  —15"  x  21  "^  x  23i^"' weight 166  pounds 

1  case  —IS*'  X  21 "  X  33* weight 147  pounds 

2  cases— each  11 "  x  17"  x  303^" weight,  eachl38  pounds 


We  believe  that  you  will  agree  with  us  that  these  pic- 
tures present  evidence  of  good  packing  for  export. 

'*Our  plants  are  bolted  to  the  base  with  31/2"  bolts,  to 
prevent  shifting  inside  of  the  case,  which  is  constructed 
of  114"  X  5"  x  39"  matched,  close  fit  lumber,  usually 


^^^kI.' **■  • 

Courtesy  of  Henry  Ford,  d  Son. 
Packing  op  Agricultural  Tractor. 
The  first  stage  of  packing,  toithout  the  wheels. 


rnurtrsu  of  Henry  Ford  rf  Son. 
Method  of  Packing  Tractor  Wheels. 
The  wheels  and  motor  are  packed  together.     Note  that  motor  is  covered  with 
waterproof  cloth. 

387 


rd  d  86n. 
Note  marks  showing  weights  and  linear  and  cuMo  measurements. 


Courtesy  of  Cleveland  Tractor  Co. 
Method  op  Boxing  Tractor. 
Whole  tractor  is  "boxed  as  it  stands,  and  consumer  has  very  little  assembling. 
Delicate  parts,  magnetos,  etc.,  packed  separately.  Box  is  lined  with  waterproof 
paper,  strongly  re-enforeed,  and  all  parts  cleated  down.  Case  is  iron  strapped. 
Attention  is  called  to  size  of  case  and  cubic  contents  indicated  by  marks,  which 
are  not  export  marks  but  haw  been  made  merely  to  illustrate  packing  methods. 

388 


PACKING  AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY    389 

hemlock  or  pine,  and  securely  strapped  with  heavy  band 
iron. 

*  *  We  would  call  your  attention  to  the  smeared  appear- 
ance, in  the  photograph,  of  the  lettering  in  the  marking. 
This  is  due  to  the  reflection  of  the  light  on  the  gloss  of 
the  shellac  with  which  all  of  our  marks  are  covered,  to 
make  them  permanent.  Actually  the  lettering  is  per- 
fectly clear. 

*^Like  many  American  manufacturers,  it  took  us  some 
time  to  learn  how  properly  to  pack  for  export,  and  it  was 
not  until  several  of  our  shipments  had  been  damaged  that 
we  learned  that  it  paid  to  put  extraordinary  careful  and 
strong  work  on  all  export  packages.'* 

Packing  Agricultural  Tractors. — According  to  a  re- 
cent issue  of  the  Wall  Street  Journal,  the  production  of 
agricultural-type  tractors  in  the  United  States  during  the 
year  1920  is  estimated  at  300,000.  This  compares  with 
175,000  produced  in  1919  and  7,450  in  1913,  the  first  year 
in  which  small  agricultural-type  tractors  demonstrated 
their  efficiency  and  worth  to  the  farmer.  Thus  in  the 
brief  span  of  seven  years  we  have  an  increase  of  some 
4,000  per  cent. 

We  believe  that  the  increase  in  production  of  tractors 
will  obey  the  same  law  as  the  increase  in  automobiles, 
and  that  the  argument  for  the  increase  in  the  two  cases 
has  a  very  close  analogy.  During  the  infancy  of  the  auto- 
mobile industry  predictions  were  constantly  made  that 
the  saturation  point  would  soon  be  reached,  and  then  we 
should  have  a  decline  in  the  number  of  cars  turned  out 
and  a  decided  restriction  in  the  maximum  production. 
However,  as  time  went  on  it  was  seen  that  the  automo- 
bile was  essentially  a  transportation  element,  and  that 
the  number  in  use  could  only  be  measured  by  the  trans- 
portation needs  of  the  different  sections  of  the  world. 
As  these  transportation  needs,  however,  are  constantly 
expanding,  both  from  the  standpoint  of  the  individual 
and  from  that  of  commerce,  it  has  been  impossible  to  set 
bounds  for  them,  and  gradually  the  conviction  has  be- 
come fixed  that  it  is  not  possible  to  set  a  limit  either  in 


390  EXPORT  PACKING 

time  or  quantity  for  the  number  of  cars  that  the  world 
will  require  and  purchase. 

The  tractor  offers  the  same  problem,  for  it  is  equally 
impossible  to  predict  the  volume  of  the  demand  that  will 
be  created  by  the  progress  of  agriculture  and  the  in- 
creased enlightenment  of  the  farming  classes.  As  the 
production  of  automobiles  will  respond  to  the  broadening 
of  transportation  needs,  utilization  of  motor  express 
lines,  expansion  of  the  good-roads  movement,  so  the  trac- 
tor will  obey  the  laws  of  expansion  in  agriculture  and  the 
necessity  confronting  the  farmer  of  relying  more  and 
more  upon  machinery  for  the  planting,  care  and  reaping 
of  his  crop. 

Tractors  are  made  in  many  different  sizes  and  in  a 
large  number  of  types,  although  it  would  seem  that  the 
greater  demand  will  be  for  the  small,  less  expensive 
machines,  as  the  same  has  been  true  of  the  small,  inex- 
pensive automobile.  A  house  doing  a  large  international 
business  in  small  tractors  sends  three  interesting  photo- 
graphs, pages  387  and  388,  which  are  self-explanatory. 

A  house  making  a  small  machine  sends  a  photograph 
(see  page  388),  and  states:  ^' We  believe  we  cannot  do  bet- 
ter than  enclose  you  herewith  a  photograph  of  the  boxing 
as  used  by  us,  which  has  proven  eminently  suitable  for 
overseas  shipment.  In  this  particular  case  the  whole 
tractor  is  boxed  as  it  is,  and  the  consumer  has  very  little 
assembling  to  do  in  order  to  have  his  machine  ready  for 
work.  The  delicate  parts  like  magnetos,  etc.,  are  packed 
separately  in  waterproof  and  greased  material,  and  the 
whole  inside  of  the  box  is  lined  with  waterproof  paper, 
strongly  reenf orced,  and  all  parts  are  cleated  down.  We 
have  had  occasion  to  ship  many  hundreds  of  these 
tractors  abroad,  and  the  complaints  about  packing  have 
been  practically  nil. ' ' 

This  manufacturer  states  that  the  case  shown  is  iron- 
strapped,  and  attention  is  called  to  the  size  of  case  and 
cubic  contents,  indicated  by  the  marks.  Of  course  these 
marks  are  not  export  marks,  and  are  merely  for  the  pur- 
pose of  illustrating  packing  methods. 


PACKING  AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY    391 

An  internationally  famous  company,  which  has 
shipped  thousands  of  tractors  to  many  parts  of  the  world, 
sends  photog-raphs  (see  pages  393,  394  and  397),  and 
writes :  ''For  engines  or  tractors  or  for  heavy  machinery 
which  makes  a  package  of  over  about  a  thousand  pounds, 
which,  therefore,  is  not  suitable  for  handling  on  a  ware- 
house truck,  we  pack  on  skids  for  moving  on  rollers. 
Tractors  are  shipped  nearly  set  up,  though  the  carrying 
wheels  are  removed. 

*'For  our  8/16  HP  tractor  we  use  two  sills,  4"  x  6", 
of  hard  maple  for  skids.  Cross  pieces  are  bolted  thereto, 
the  heads  of  the  bolts  being  counter-sunk  in  the  bottom 
of  the  sills.  The  cross  pieces  are  covered  with  a  maple 
floor.  Yellow  pine  uprights  measuring  2"  x  6"  are  nailed 
with  40-penny  nails  to  the  ends  of  the  cross  pieces.  Top 
stringers  and  top  cross  pieces  are  provided  of  the  same 
material.  All  is  covered  by  maple  sheathing  and  rein- 
forced by  band  iron.  Cross  pieces  are  run  from  side 
to  side  where  convenient.  The  engine  must  be  firmly 
bolted  to  the  skids  or  flooring;  nothing  is  hung  to  the 
sides  of  the  box. 

*  *  All  bright  or  finished  parts  are  covered  with  water- 
proof paper,  reenforced  with  gauze;  10-penny  nails  are 
used  in  sheathing;  8-penny  nails  in  banding.  Carrying 
wheels  are  shipped  loose  with  boards  attached  for  sten- 
ciling. ' ' 

A  large  manufacturer  and  shipper  sends  the  fol- 
lowing brief  description  of  his  packing  procedure:  **The 
implement  or  tractor,  completely  assembled,  is  forwarded 
to  the  boxing  department.  Here  it  is  carefully  inspected 
to  make  sure  that  everything  is  in  order,  and  then  dis- 
assembled. Instead  of  the  bolts  and  other  parts  being 
packed  loosely  in  the  box,  each  bolt  and  nut  is  put  back 
into  its  proper  place.  All  exposed  and  polished  surfaces 
are  coated  with  a  special  anti-rust  compound.  The  parts 
are  next  packed  in  excelsior,  in  specially  designed  boxes, 
which  are  made  of  carefully  selected  gum-wood  planking 
of  I/2"  thickness.  Cement  covered  nails  are  used  through- 
out.   After  the  parts  are  carefully  packed  in  excelsior 


392  EXPORT  PACKING 

in  these  boxes,  three  complete  sets  of  setting-up  instruc- 
tions are  then  placed  in  the  box,  before  the  top  cover  is 
nailed  on.  These  setting-up  instructions  are  translated 
into  French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Italian,  etc.,  and  in- 
stead of  going  into  a  lengthy  description  as  to  how  each 
part  is  assembled,  it  has  been  our  policy  to  show  excellent 
cuts  of  photographs.  After  the  top  cover  has  been  nailed 
down,  the  box  is  then  banded  at  intervals  of  2^/  with 
heavy  gauge  band  iron,  %"  wide.  This  is  tightened  by  a 
special  tool  made  for  that  purpose. 

*  *  The  description  of  the  boxing  methods  on  our  trac- 
tor is  clearly  explained  in  the  attached  article.  We 
might  add  that  this  tractor  crate  is  lined  on  the  inside 
with  several  thicknesses  of  tar  paper.  We  are  now  using 
double  deck  planking,  as  our  experience  has  shown  us  that 
when  single  deck  planking  is  used  water  will  sometimes 
leak  through  the  top  and  remain  on  top  of  the  tar  paper 
lining,  until  the  rolling  of  the  ship,  or  whatever  convey- 
ance is  being  used,  gradually  works  the  water  through  the 
wrapping  of  the  tar  paper." 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  the  article  referred 
to  in  the  last  paragraph,  which,  together  with  quotations 
appearing  in  the  earlier  portion  of  this  chapter,  was  pub- 
lished in  Tractor  and  Trailer:  **In  packing  the  tractors 
the  same  care  is  used  about  little  things  as  in  the  line  of 
implements.  The  main  thing  in  packing  big  machinery, 
as  in  everything  else,  is  the  degree  of  care  used.  Tlie 
most  careful,  conscientious  and  painstaking  man  in  the 
shop  should  be  put  in  charge  of  packing  shipments  for 
export. 

^  ^  The  illustration,  page  397,  showing  a  tractor  in  skele- 
ton crate,  shows  very  clearly  method  of  packing  this 
machine.  It  is  particularly  necessary  to  have  the  trac- 
tor thoroughly  braced  in  the  crate  so  that  however 
the  crate  may  be  stowed  away  the  tractor  and  dismantled 
parts  will  keep  their  places.  Care  must  also  be  taken 
that  machine  is  packed  so  as  to  avoid  a  strain  on  any 
particular  part.  The  crate  is  just  wide  enough  to  admit 
the  front  part  of  chassis  with  drive  wheel  on  either  side. 


tourtcsy  o/  International  Harvester  Co. 
Tractor  Knocked  Down  with  Parts  Disassembled 
Ready  for  Export  Packing. 


Courtesy  of  International  Harvester  Co. 
Packing  Disassembled  Tractor. 
Shows  base,  or  skids.     The  hood  has  been  removed  from  the  engine. 

393 


Courtesy  of  International  Harvester  Co. 
Framework  of  Sides  and  Top  of  Case  for  Tractor. 

Tractor  is  attached  to  base.    Note  method  of  placing  boxes  containing  8mall 
parts. 


^.IM,,^.^  * 


Courtesy  of  International  Harvester  Co. 
Method  of  Packing  Parts  of  Tractor. 
Carrying  wheels  and  other  parts  have  been  inserted  and  attached  to  base, 

394 


PACKING  AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY    395 

The  length  of  course  is  the  extreme  length  of  the  tractor 
with  wheels  removed,  and  height  the  diameter  of  drive 
wheels.  This  tractor  packs  in  208  cubic  feet,  which  re- 
sults in  a  very  appreciable  saving  in  freight  to  the  im- 
porter. 

*' Every  precaution  is  taken  to  prevent  the  tractor  be- 
ing injured  by  exposure  to  the  weather  and  sea  water. 
The  tractor  is  first  placed  in  skeleton  crate  and  thor- 
oughly braced ;  then  covered  with  heavy  grade  tar  paper 
and  finally  boxed,  as  shown  in  illustration,  page  398.^' 

Another  prominent  manufacturer  writes:  **The  prob- 
lem of  packing  tractors  for  export  shipment  begins  at 
the  time  the  machines  are  knocked  down  in  the  factory, 
and  ends  only  when  they  are  reassembled  at  their  foreign 
destination.  The  tractor  must  be  sufficiently  taken  apart 
as  to  permit  compact  packing.  At  the  same  time  no 
unnecessary  part  must  be  taken  off.  The  tractor  must 
be  so  packed  and  crated  that  it  will  arrive  in  good  con- 
dition without  breakage  or  loss.'*  See  photographs  sup- 
plied by  this  house,  pages  398,  401  and  402. 

**A11  machine  parts  must  be  so  protected  by  the  use 
of  heavy  slushing  oil  that  there  can  be  no  corrosion  of 
the  metal  by  salt  air.  Precautions  must  also  be  taken 
against  rain  and  impromptu  duckings. 

**  Arriving  as  it  does  at  its  destination  in  a  knocked 
down  condition,  it  follows  that  reassembling  at  the  dock 
or  warehouse  is  the  first  step  to  be  taken,  and  in  order 
that  loss  of  parts  or  mistakes  in  erection  cannot  occur, 
a  careful  system  of  checking-in  the  removed  parts  and  a 
carefully  explained  process  of  reerection  must  be  sent 
along  with  the  tractor. 

**  Knocking  Down. — The  tractor  is  run  in  on  the  ship- 
ping floor;  the  hood  and  spark  plugs  are  removed;  the 
cylinder  head  pan  is  taken  off  and  heavy  slushing  oil 
worked  into  the  valve  seats  and  cylinders,  over  the  bear- 
ings and  down  the  valve  guides,  and  on  every  machined 
surface.  On  all  other  exposed  places  not  covered  by 
paint,  a  special  slushing  grease  is  smeared  thickly.  These 
precautions  are  taken  as  a  protection  against  the  damp 


396  EXPORT  PACKING 

sea  air  and  moisture.  The  fan  belt,  spark  plugs,  steer- 
ing wheel  and  levers  are  then  removed  and  packed  se- 
curely in  boxes.  The  wheels  are  taken  off  and  the  naked 
frame  with  the  motor  is  placed  in  the  crate.  The  wheels 
are  placed  alongside  as  shown  in  the  photograph  (page 
401),  and  the  boxes  of  parts  stowed  away.  Around  the 
engine  is  wrapped  a  double  thickness  of  heavy  tar  paper, 
which  is  securely  tied. 

**It  is  obvious  that  such  a  heavy  piece  of  machinery 
requires  an  extra  strong  crate  to  protect  it  from  the  hard 
knocks  of  handling  by  cranes  and  winches. 

*^A  brief  description  of  the  crates  in  which  Twin 
City  *  12-20^  tractors  are  packed  might  not  be  amiss.  The 
bed  pieces  of  the  frame  are  three  heavy  four  by  sixes, 
running  lengthwise  and  tied  by  three  half -inch  tie  rods. 
The  flooring,  which  is  two-inch  planking,  is  nailed  se- 
curely to  these  stringers.  On  top  of  this  planking  is 
placed  a  double  thickness  of  tar  paper.  The  uprights  of 
the  crate  are  then  placed  in  position  and  securely  bolted, 
and  the  top  cross  pieces  put  on ;  tar  paper  is  then  tacked 
on  the  outside  faces  of  the  uprights  and  the  case  sheathed 
up  over  the  tar  paper  with  one-inch  dressed  and  matched 
lumber,  thus  making  the  whole  thing  water-tight  and  al- 
most air-tight. 

** Markings. — The  boxes  containing  removed  parts  are 
placed  on  the  inside  of  the  crate,  are  marked  with  a  list 
of  the  materials  they  contain,  while  the  outside  of  the 
crate  is  labeled  with  very  great  care.  The  number  of  the 
box,  its  cubic  contents  in  cubic  feet  and  cubic  meters, 
its  weight  in  pounds  and  kilograms,  the  gross  tare  and 
net  in  pounds  and  kilograms,  its  destination  and  the 
consignor,  also  the  notation  *For  export-lighterage  free,' 
are  placed  conspicuously. '* 

The  originators  of  the  caterpillar  type  of  tractor  sup- 
ply the  author  with  an  elaborate  book  covering  their 
packing  procedure,  and  from  the  general  instructions  is- 
sued by  this  company  the  following  quotations  are  made 
covering  the  most  important  sections  of  the  same: 

**1.   (a)   When  disassembling  the  tractor  as  many  as 


Courtesy  of  International  Harvester  Co. 
Completed  Case  Containing  Disassembled  Tractor. 
Shows  the  complete  package,  including  handing. 


Courtrsif  of  J.  I.  Case  Plow  Works  Co. 
Tractor  in   Skeleton   Crate. 
Thp  trartftr  must  he  thwouqhly  hraced  so  that   however  the  crate  maty  he 
st^eda^S^  fV  tractor  a^d  dismantled  parts  will  keep   their  places.     Care 
mZt  betaken  that  machine  is  so  packed  to  avoid  undue  strain  on  any  one  part. 

397 


Oourtesy  oj  J.  I.  Case  Plow  W(yrka  Co. 
Final  Boxing  of  Tractor. 
co^^^Pd  tf^^ iFJ'^JH^nVJi^'^H^^'^  "^"^^  T^.  thoroughly  braced,  the  tractor  is 
at^Zping  ^^^^^  ^^^^'      ^"^   ^^'^   ia  now  ready  for 


Courtesy  oJ  Minneapolis  Steel  and  Machinery  Co. 
Another  Method  of  Packing  Disassembled  Tractor. 
A  disassembled  machine  which  has  just  been  lifted  into  the  partly  built  case 
by  means  of  the  overhead  crane  shown  in  the  picture.     For  grcatei-  ease  in  load- 
ing, only  one  side  of  the  case  is  built  up. 

398 


PACKING  AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY   399 

possible  of  the  small  parts  of  assemblies,  also  bolts,  nuts, 
washers,  etc.,  will  be  replaced  on  the  assemblies  from 
which  removed,  and  when  so  placed  must  be  securely- 
tightened  or  fastened  so  they  will  not  jar  off. 

^*(b)  When  it  is  impossible  to  replace  such  parts  as 
outlined  above,  owing  to  interference  in  crating,  they 
should  be  placed  in  cloth  shipping  sacks,  or  wrapped  if 
too  large  to  be  put  in  sacks,  tagged  so  as  to  be  properly 
identified,  and  then  be  tied  or  fastened  as  near  the  loca- 
tion where  they  belong  as  possible.  In  cases  where  the 
twine  or  cord  is  likely  to  be  cut  or  become  broken,  the 
tags  should  be  wired  to  the  assembly. 

**(c)  If  the  above  referred  to  parts  are  finished  or 
machined,  they  must  be  slushed  with  slushing  compound 
to  prevent  rust. 

**2.  All  finished  or  machined  metal  parts  on  all  as- 
semblies will  be  thoroughly  slushed  with  slushing  com- 
pound (a  composition  of  heavy  oil  and  white  lead)  before 
packing  to  prevent  rust  or  corrosion.  This  is  of  prime  im- 
portam?e,  as  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  portions  of 
the  hold  of  the  ship  are  at  best  extremely  damp  and 
machinery  for  export  traffic  must  be  protected  against 
rust  and  damage  due  to  water  and  dampness. 

'^3.  Boxes  containing  all  assemblies,  which  might  be 
damaged  by  rust,  will  be  lined  with  tar  paper  as  an  extra 
precaution  against  dampness. 

'^4.  As  a  means  of  assisting  in  reassembling,  a  dupli- 
cate set  of  numbered  tags  will  be  used.  After  the  dis- 
assembly is  made  and  part  removed,  such  parts  will  be 
tagged  with  one  of  the  duplicate  numbered  tags;  the 
corresponding  duplicate  numbered  tag  will  be  attached 
to  the  place  where  the  part  was  removed  from.  Tags  will 
be  fitted  with  wire  fastenings  and  not  twine  fastenings. 

^'5.  Before  starting  the  disassembly  of  the  tractor, 
the  carburetor,  gasoline  tanks,  radiator  and  cooling  sys- 
tem must  be  entirely  drained  and  the  long  red  tag  marked 
*  CAUTION »  attached  to  the  motor. 

*'6.  Inspection  plates  on  the  motor  will  be  removed 
and  the  connecting  rods,  crankshaft,  and  other  interior 


400  EXPORT  PACKING 

parts  will  be  given  a  coating  of  slushing  compound,  also 
a  pint  of  heavy  cylinder  oil  will  be  placed  in  each  cylinder 
through  the  spark  plug  holes.  The  small  red  tag  marked 
IMPORTANT  ^  will  be  attached  to  the  motor,  saying  this 
has  been  done. 

**7.  All  air  openings  into  the  motor  or  transmission 
must  be  filled  with  wooden  plugs  or  be  stuffed  with  burlap 
and  wrapped  with  'Kraft'  paper,  so  as  to  prevent  any 
dampness  reaching  the  interior  parts. 

^'8.  Specifications  of  'Kraft'  paper:  Paper  should 
be  100  per  cent  sulphate  'Kraft'  paper,  weighing  approxi- 
mately 60  pounds  to  the  ream  of  480  sheets,  24"  x  36", 
coated  with  asphalt  and  reenforced  with  cotton  cloth  of 
approximately  16  thread  to  the  inch  in  each  direction. 
This  paper  should  weigh  approximately  34  pounds  to  the 
100  square  yards.  Such  paper  will  be  entirely  waterproof 
and  have  strength  of  not  less  than  60  pounds,  tested  on 
Mullen  tester. 

"9.  Marking  packages :  Each  package  will  be  plainly 
marked  with  stencil  or  brush,  unless  specific  directions 
are  given  to  the  contrary  on  the  shipping  order.  Never 
use  shipping  tags,  as  they  are  easily  torn  off  in  handling. 

"10.  Numbering  packages:  Whenever  a  shipment 
embraces  more  than  one  package,  each  package  in  the 
shipment  must  be  numbered  consecutively.  This  point  is 
important,  as  numbers  must  be  shown  on  all  documents 
and  bill  of  ladings  relating  to  the  shipment,  such  being 
one  of  the  principal  means  of  identification  used  by  the 
steamship  company  when  loading  and  discharging  cargo. 

"11.  Reenforcihg  with  strap  iron:  (a)  Elach  box 
when  nailed  will  be,  if  built  on  skids,  strapped  from  bot- 
tom, up  sides  and  across  the  top,  and  also  from  bottom, 
up  the  ends  and  over  the  top,  with  strap  iron  nailed  to  the 
box ;  strap  iron  to  be  placed  at  least  1"  from  the  end  is 
preferred. 

"(b)  If  box  is  not  built  on  skids,  the  strapping  must 
extend  entirely  around  the  box,  both  lengthwise  and 
around  the  ends. 

"12.    After  the  assemblies  have  been  placed  in  the 


Courtesy  of  Minneapolis  Steel  and  Machinerj/  Co. 
Second  Stage  of  Packing  Disassembled  Tractor. 
The  same  machine  after  the  parts  have  been  slushed  with  oil  and  the  engine 
has  been  u^rappcd  tcith  double  thickness  of  tar  paper,  firmly  tied  with  rope. 


Courtesy  of  Minneapolis  Steel  and  Machinery  Co. 
Method  of  Packing  Tractor  Wheels. 
The  wheels  are  packed  in  beside  the  tractor.     In  the  back  are  the  two  large 
hind  wheels,  and  in  foreground  is  one  front  wheel,  the  second  front  wheel  lying 
beneath  the  other.     The  small  wheel  is  a  belt  pulley. 

401 


Courtesy  of  Minneapolis  Steel  and  Machinery  Co. 
Teactor  Case  Keady  for  Sheathing. 

i.,.fu  ,?^^%^?^i.  ^^^^  P?(^J^¥  «^.  (ground  tractors  and  other  side  of  case  has  heen 
Umlt  up.    Note  box  contatmng  tools  and  spare  parts  in  foreground. 


Courtesy  of  Troy  Wofjon   Wfjyi-s  Co. 
TkAii>KK  Jioxhu  FOR  Export. 
The  trailer  is  shipped  knocked  down.     Boxes  hound  with  1"  No.  22  strap  iron 
naned  on.     Corners  are  reenforced  icith  No.  lit  sheet  steel.  * 

402 


PACKING  AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY    403 

crates,  all  places  which  should  be  painted  (but  were  not 
covered  at  the  time  the  spraying  was  done)  will  be 
painted  with  a  brush;  also  all  parts  of  the  assembly 
marred  in  making  the  disassembly  will  be  re-painted  with 
the  brush. 

*'13.  Tools  and  spare  parts :  Tools  will  be  packed  in 
a  box  made  of  1"  material,  20i/>"  long,  16%"  wide  and  14 
34"  high;  and  spare  parts  will  be  packed  in  two  (2)  boxes 
made  of  1"  material,  one  of  which  is  the  same  size  as 
the  tool  box  and  the  other  size  41'-  long,  10"  wide  and  9" 
high/' 

Hand  Plows. — A  large  exporter  of  hand  plows  gives 
us  the  following  information  regarding  packing  for  ex- 
port shipment : 

'*In  packing  plows  for  export  shipment  we  always 
knock  them  down  completely  or  disassemble  all  parts. 
The  plow  bottoms  proper,  which  consist  of  the  standard, 
mouldboard,  share  and  landside,  are  usually  packed  in 
one  case,  placing  about  six  of  these  bottoms  in  one  box. 
Prairie  hay  is  packed  between  the  parts  so  as  to  prevent 
breakage.  We  have  found  this  to  be  the  best  material 
that  we  can  get  hold  of  for  this  purpose,  as  it  will  not 
move  or  shift  around  in  the  box  like  shavings  or  some 
other  materials  that  are  sometimes  used.  The  hay  is 
very  tough  and  even  when  the  cases  are  occasionally  sub- 
jected to  rain  or  weather  conditions,  this  hay  remains 
just  the  same  as  when  placed  in  the  cases. 

*'If  the  plows  are  fitted  with  steel  beams,  we  usually 
pack  the  beams  for  six  or  twelve  plows  in  a  case  and 
the  wood  handles  in  another  case,  so  that  the  iron  parts 
will  have  no  chance  of  scratching  the  paint  on  the  wood 
parts. 

**If  the  plows  are  fitted  with  wood  beams,  the  usual 
custom  is  to  pack  the  handles  and  beams  in  one  case. 
When  there  are  nothing  but  wood  parts  in  a  case  no  hay, 
of  course,  is  required  as  everything  is  packed  tightly  and 
if  necessary,  cleats  are  nailed  in  the  cases  so  as  to  keep 
everything  in  perfect  position. 

**The  cases  themselves  are  made  from  good  quality 


404  EXPORT  PACKING 

pine  crating  or  boxing  lumber  of  one  inch  in  thickness. 
Occasionally  it  is  necessary  to  use  some  hard  wood  lum- 
ber where  a  little  more  weight  than  usual  is  to  be  placed 
in  the  cases.  You  will  note  that  they  are  cleated  at  the 
corners  on  each  end,  giving  strength  and  also  providing 
better  facilities  for  fastening  on  the  lid.  All  cases,  which 
are  five  foot  or  more  in  length,  especially  if  considerable 
weight  is  placed  in  them,  are  also  provided  with  cleats 
in  the  middle  on  the  inside  of  the  cases,  on  both  sides 
and  the  bottom. 

^*A11  cases  are  bound  with  heavy  strap  iron  and  ex- 
tremely well  nailed.  The  small  cases  are  bound  on  each 
end  with  strap  iron,  while  the  longer  ones  are  also  bound 
in  the  middle  and  if  exceptionally  long  we  place  two 
bands  of  strap  iron  in  the  middle,  making  four  alto- 
gether. 

**The  average  weight  of  our  cases  is  around  400 
pounds  gross  and  they  very  seldom  weigh  more  than  650 
to  700  pounds.  For  the  West  Coast  of  South  America 
the  cases,  of  course,  are  somewhat  smaller  and  we  always 
follow  closely  the  wishes  of  our  customers  when  they 
want  the  weight  held  down  to  the  minimum  on  account 
of  having  to  carry  the  cases  over  the  mountains  on  mule- 
back. 

**We  have  in  charge  of  our  export  packing  depart- 
ment an  old  and  experienced  employee,  w4io  takes  a  spe- 
cial interest  in  the  business  and  a  special  pleasure  in 
seeing  to  it  that  all  goods  reach  destination  in  the  same 
condition  they  leave  the  factory." 

Another  large  shipper  writes  us: 

*'We  use  double  end  cases  built  of  North  Carolina  or 
Georgia  pine,  and  banded  with  hoop  iron.  In  packing 
the  boxes  we  are  careful  to  see  that  there  are  no  bulges 
in  the  middle,  as  these  will  bring  the  weight  of  the  cargo 
unnecessarily  upon  the  contents  of  the  box,  and  result  in 
breakage  without  any  apparent  cause.  Normally,  we 
pack  3  plows  in  a  box,  but  the  small  plows  go  6  in  a  box, 
and  the  heavy  contractor's  plows  2  in  a  box. 

**The  plows  are  set  up  complete  with  the  exception 


PACKING  AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY   405 

of  the  handles,  and  are  then  knocked  down,  all  of  the 
parts  of  the  plow  being  together  so  that  every  plow  can 
be  assembled  with  the  same  parts.  While  it  is  true  that 
plow  parts  are  interchangeable,  it  is  not  possible  to  as- 
semble and  polish  them,  and  after  tearing  them  down, 
to  build  them  from  parts  at  random,  and  have  them  look 
as  well  as  the  original  plow.  The  iron  and  steel  parts 
are  packed  in  excelsior,  and  the  wood  parts  are  protected 
from  damage  through  contact  with  the  iron  parts  by  a 
thin  strip  of  wood.  The  handles  are  included,  so  that 
each  box  contains  all  the  parts  to  complete  the  plows. 

^'We  endeavor  to  keep  the  boxes  to  within  the  limit 
of  about  450  pounds,  as  our  experience  shows  that  heav- 
ier boxes  show  a  great  increase  of  breakage.'' 

In  connection  with  this  information  the  photographs 
reproduced  together  on  page  409  will  be  found  of  interest. 
Cut  No.  1  shows  a  box  of  plow  parts  before  being  nailed 
up.  The  use  of  prairie  hay  for  packing  between  cast 
parts  or  between  steel  and  wood  parts  to  prevent  scratch- 
ing of  painted  surfaces  will  be  noted.  Before  the  box  is 
finally  nailed  up  additional  hay  is  put  on  top  and  the  case 
is  filled  as  full  as  possible.  Cut  No.  2  shows  a  carload  of 
goods  all  boxed,  packed,  stenciled  and  marked  and  ready 
for  loading. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE   PACKING   OF   HARDWARE,   TOOLS,   AUTO- 
MOBILE  ACCESSORIES,  SMALL  APPARATUS 

IT  is  very  probable  that  one  of  the  very  important 
reasons  for  the  success  that  has  attended  American 
export  trade  in  hardware  and  tools  has  been  due  to 
the  character  of  the  packing  and  the  care  with  which  the 
firms  most  prominent  in  the  work  have  distinguished 
their  export  effort.  The  neat,  carefully  wrapped  and 
cartoned  American  tool  or  fine  hardware  is  a  delight  to 
the  foreign  merchant  and  is  constantly  winning  us  good 
grace  and  favor. 

The  character  of  the  American  export  package  is  in 
direct  contrast  to  the  European  method,  and  this  is  fairly 
surprising  in  view  of  the  care  with  which  the  European 
export  package  is  usually  looked  after.  The  fact  is,  how- 
ever, that  the  continental  manufacturers  usually  ship 
tools  either  loose  or  uninvitingly  wrapped  in  brown 
paper,  and  the  merchandise  hardly  graces  the  merchants ' 
shelves  when  once  it  has  been  unpacked  and  piled  up  as 
best  the  situation  permits. 

It  is  not  alone  the  neat  carton  that  commends  the 
American  package  of  tools  or  hardware,  it  is  also  the  well 
considered  export  case  in  which  the  goods  are  placed. 
The  best  practice  of  the  United  States  has  developed  an 
excellent  export  case  for  this  class  of  goods,  and  the  man 
abroad  who  takes  his  exercise  along  the  docks  from  time 
to  time  is  more  than  once  pleased  to  note  many  excellent 
cases  with  the  name  of  some  well  known  American  man- 
ufacturer of  tools  or  hardware  stamped  thereon. 

Character  of  Complaints. — However,  no  American 
manufacturer  of  hardware  or  tools  and  similar  goods 
should  delude  himself  into  the  belief  that  his  packing  is 

406 


THE  PACKING  OF  SMALL  APPARATUS   407 

necessarily  perfect.  Not  a  few  complaints  are  constantly 
being  received  from  foreign  customers  of  American  man- 
ufacturers as  to  the  unsatisfactory  condition  in  which 
various  commodities  are  received.  For  example,  a  letter 
from  a  large  New  York  export  merchant  specializing  in 
the  shipping  of  hardware  and  tools  reports  several  com- 
plaints recently  received.  One  from  Australia  referred 
to  the  light,  frail  cases  which  many  American  manufac- 
turers use  and  the  soft  woods  employed  for  making 
the  cases  which  are  not  at  all  suited  for  the  long  sea 
journey.  Another  complaint  received  by  this  merchant 
from  customers  in  India  refers  to  the  same  characteristic 
of  some  American  packing,  that  is,  cases  too  light  and 
iron  banding  both  too  narrow  and  too  light  weight.  Fur- 
thermore, the  Indian  customers  of  the  New  York  exporter 
declare  that  there  is  a  very  large  breakage  of  iron  cast- 
ings due  to  the  totally  insufficient  use  of  excelsior  or  other 
stuffing  material. 

Other  complaints  of  the  way  in  which  some  American 
hardware  is  shipped  are  voiced  in  a  letter  on  this  sub- 
ject from  another  export  merchant,  wJio  declares  that  his 
foreign  customers  very  frequently  complain  of  the  poor 
quality  of  the  cardboard  boxes  which  are  used  for  con- 
taining shelf  hardware,  padlocks,  etc.,  which  frequently 
arrive  torn  or  crushed.  This  is  attributed  both  to  the 
fact  that  the  cardboard  used  is  too  light  in  weight  and  to 
the  fact  that  the  cartons  are  not  quite  filled,  leaving 
empty  spaces  which  make  crushing  almost  inevitable,  be- 
sides permitting  the  contents  to  rattle  about.  If  cartons 
are  not  quite  full  they  should  be  firmly  wadded  with  tis- 
sue or  waste  paper.  Of  course,  damage  to  a  cardboard 
box  which  is  intended  for  shelf  display  purposes  is  quite 
a  serious  handicap  to  the  free  development  of  further  and 
larger  business.  Naturally  all  such  cartons  of  hardware 
ought  to  be  very  firmly  packed  inside  of  the  wooden  cases. 

Complaint  it  seems  is  also  sometimes  received  as  to 
inadequate  waterproofing  protection  of  cases  of  hard- 
ware. To  this  is  attributed  the  spots  of  rust  which  are 
frequently  found  and  interfere  seriously  with  the  sal- 


408  EXPORT  PACKING 

ability  of  the  goods.  Furthermore,  one  export  merchant 
protests  against  the  use  of  thoroughly  inadequate  cases 
in  the  packing  of  very  expensive  lines  of  hardware,  and 
rightly  believes  that  the  more  valuable  the  contents  the 
greater  the  care  which  ought  to  be  devoted  to  their  pro- 
tection. 

Examples  of  Actual  Practice.— It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  by  no  means  a  small  percentage  of  hardware  ex- 
ports is  dispatched  in  kegs  and  barrels  instead  of  in 
cases.  This  form  of  package  is  probably  preferred  in 
most  instances  because  a  keg  or  barrel  is  considerably 
cheaper  than  a  suitable  export  packing  case.  Shipments 
in  this  form  of  container  will  be  found  discussed  in  a 
special  chapter  dealing  with  barrelled  goods.  In  this 
connection  one  of  the  largest  manufacturers  of  cast-iron 
cistern  pumps  in  the  United  States  declares  that  while 
his  shipments  are  customarily  exported  in  barrels,  for 
which  a  charge  is  made  only  about  one-half  of  what  would 
be  necessary  if  packing  cases  were  used,  yet  he  has  one 
customer  in  Europe  to  whom  these  common  cast-iron 
pumps  are  shipped  entirely  naked.  In  this  particular 
case,  the  explanation  is  that  the  merchandise  is  trans- 
ported by  a  direct  steamship  line  plying  between  New 
York  and  the  city  where  the  customer  is  located,  and  the 
line  in  question  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  careful 
steamship  companies  in  the  world  paying  special  atten- 
tion to  the  handling  of  cargo  of  all  sorts.  The  customer 
in  this  instance  believes  that  he  suffers  less  loss  from 
breakage  when  the  pumps  are  shipped  naked  than  the 
cost  even  of  barrels  amounts  to.  Of  course,  instances  like 
this  are  not  to  be  considered  as  precedents.  All  goods, 
hardware  and  everything  else,  must  always  in  the  absence 
of  special  agreements  with  customers  be  shipped  with 
the  fullest  and  most  adequate  protection  possible.  From 
the  experience  in  letters  received  from  a  great  many  dif- 
ferent manufacturers  of  various  kinds  of  hardware,  a  few 
extracts  may  be  made  as  illustrating  the  practice  and  pol- 
icy of  large  shippers  who  have  been  exporting  their  goods 
for  a  great  many  years. 


SI/  of  South  Bend  Chilled  Plow  Co. 

Boxing  Plow  Parts. 

Shows  the  box  before  being  nailed  up.  Prairie  hay  is  packed  around  plow 
handles,  beaviK,  etc.,  to  prevent  scratching  of  paint.  It  is  likewise  used  for 
packing  between  cast  parts.     The  case  is  filled  full  of  hay  before  nailing. 


Courtesy  of  South  Bend  Chilled  Plow  Co. 
A  Carload  op  Goods  Ready  for  Shipment. 
^09 


('ou)ttsij  0}   Uoudcll-Pratt   Co. 

Packing    of    Small   Tools. 

These  ca^es  are  lined  with  specially  prepared  waterproof  paper.     Tools  are 
packed  in  strong  paper  covered  cartons. 


Courtesy  o] 

Case  of  Small  Tools. 


iitt  tv. 


Banding  for  this  case  is  of  moderately  heavy  grade  fttrap  with  turned  edges. 
Shipping  marks  and  case  numbers  are  stenciled  in  2"  letters. 

410 


THE  PACKING  OF  SMALL  APPARATUS    411 

One  prominent  manufacturer  writes:  **As  we  man- 
ufacture over  2,000  different  tools,  no  two  of  which  are 
of  the  same  size  and  shape,  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  carry 
in  stock  a  large  assortment  of  packing  cases  of  various 
sizes  in  order  to  avoid  the  all  too  common  error  of  ship- 
ping in  cases  involving  an  excessive  amount  of  waste 
space.  Summing  up  our  experience  of  nearly  thirty  years 
in  export  shipping,  w^e  believe  it  is  necessary  for  ex- 
porters to  study  continually  both  qualities  and  styles  of 
cases,  method  of  packing,  case  lining,  style  of  band  iron 
used  and  method  of  applying,  as  well  as  the  stenciling 
and  handling  of  the  packages. 

**We  use  in  every  instance  new  cases  of  pine  in  order 
to  save  weight  and  get  maximum  strength.  Our  largest 
cases  measure  37%"  x  26"  x  123/4"  and  all  our  cases  of 
the  larger  sizes  are  made  from  Ys"  stock  in  what  is  known 
by  box  manufacturers  as  Style  No.  3  (with  mitered 
cleated  ends).  Our  smaller  cases  (see  cuts  page  410) 
are  made  in  the  regular  manner,  but  when  they  are  used 
for  shipping  hack  saw  blades  the  box  ends  are  made  of 
plump  2"  lumber  and  the  sides,  top  and  bottom  run  from 
yg"  to  1".  (This  case,  as  shown  in  the  photograph, 
measures  approximately  291/2"  x  12%"  x  5%"  and  is  a 
very  durable  and  satisfactory  package.) 

^^Then  we  line  all  of  our  export  cases  with  a  specially 
prepared  paper  which  is  waterproof  and  keeps  out  both 
water  and  moisture,  does  not  tear  too  easily  and  above  all 
does  not  stain  or  soil  pasteboard  cartons  with  oil  or  smut. 

**  Whenever  waste  space  is  unavoidable  in  a  case  it  is 
carefully  filled  with  crumpled  bogus  paper.  We  never 
use'excelsior,  hay  or  straw,  as  any  of  the  three  will  break 
up  into  small  particles  and  get  into  the  pasteboard  car- 
tons with  the  tools,  thereby  making  all  the  cartons  untidy 
when  they  are  opened  for  the  inspection  of  purchasers. 
Bogus  paper  is  a  very  cheap  grade  of  paper  which  will 
crumple  up  easily  and  make  a  soft  but  weight  repelling 
packing. 

**A11  items  which  we  manufacture  except  small  ones, 
such  as  nail  sets,  gimlet  bits,  screwdrivers,  etc.,  are 


412  EXPORT  PACKING 

packed  one  each  in  a  strong  paper  covered  carton.  Be- 
fore packing  each  tool  is  wrapped  in  waxed  or  anti-rust 
paper.  The  smaller  items,  nail  sets,  etc.,  are  packed  in 
similar  fashion  except  that  they  are  put  up  in  lots  of  half 
dozen  or  one  dozen  to  a  pasteboard  carton. 

**  Unless  the  cartons  stand  up  a  very  little  above  the 
sides  of  the  case,  it  is  customary  with  us  to  place  one,  two 
or  three  thicknesses  of  corrugated  paper  over  the  entire 
contents  in  order  to  keep  all  the  cartons  in  place  and 
avoid  the  possibility  of  shifting,  then  the  cover  is  nailed 
down  with  cement  coated  nails  used  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  draw  the  cover  tight  all  around  the  case. 

**For  banding  cases  we  use  a  moderately  heavy  grade 
of  iron  with  turned  edges  and  apply  with  a  small  hand 
machine  which  stretches  bands  tight  before  nailing. 

**  Stenciling  shipping  marks  and  case  numbers  is 
done  with  2"  letters,  the  forwarding  agent's  name  and 
address  with  a  smaller  stencil,  as  will  be  rioted  in  the 
photograph  supplied.  In  our  experience  we  have  found 
that  this  is  one  of  the  most  important  points  quite  often 
overlooked  when  cases  are  stenciled  for  export  shipment. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  (a)  to  see  that  stencils  of  the 
proper  size  are  used,  (b)  to  place  the  markings  in  good 
position  on  the  case,  (c)  to  use  a  good  grade  of  water 
repelling  stenciling  ink.  * ' 

Other  photographs  supplied  by  another  prominent 
manufacturer  (see  page  415)  are  self-explanatory.  This 
manufacturer  again  advises  the  use  of  good  quality 
white  pine  lumber  in  making  cases,  believing  it  light  and 
very  durable.  He  also  urges  the  use  of  waterproof  ink 
in  marking  cases ;  one  that  will  not  wash  off  or  smudge. 

Packing  Saws.— Advices  have  been  received  from  two 
different  manufacturers  of  saws  in  regard  to  the  methods 
employed  by  them  in  export  packing.  One  manufacturer 
writes  that  '^we  use  matched  lumber  yg"  thick,  line  with 
waterproof  paper,  and  bind  with  iron  strapping  %"  wide 
drawn  very  tight.  The  goods  are  firmly  blocked  inside 
the  box  by  means  of  cleats,  etc.,  and  articles  liable  to 
breakage  are  carefully  packed  in  excelsior.     The  out- 


THE  PACKING  OF  SMALL  APPARATUS   413 

side  ends  of  our  cases  are  reenforced  by  cleats  of  %" 
lumber,  as  illustrated  in  the  attached  sketches/' 

A  second  manufacturer  of  saws  uses  heavier  material 
as  will  be  observed  from  the  letter  which  follows :  *  ^  On 
the  larger  saws  for  mills  we  go  over  each  saw  with  a 
solution  to  guard  against  rust  and  the  saws  are  packed 
in  cases  lined  with  keep-dry  paper.  Cases  are  all 
strapped  with  either  iron  or  wire  as  they  are  usually 
heavy  and  all  are  made  of  lumber  at  least  1"  thick. 


5fee/ bands  ya'tvide  alJw^y 
around  at  ends,  nailed  on 
Also  extra  band  across 
at  midd/p 


Court eay  of  E.  C.  Atkins  d  Company. 

Method  of  jxacking  saws. 

**0n  our  hand  saws  and  saws  for  the  hardware  dealer, 
where  it  is  important  that  the  polish  on  the  saw  should 
not  be  dulled,  we  use  a  special  preparation  which  we  have 
developed  ourselves  which  lacquers  the  saw  and  prevents 
rust  without  in  any  way  interfering  with  the  polish. 

**Our  problem  is  to  pack  our  goods  in  such  a  way  that 
they  will  not  rust  and  yet  without  interfering  with  the 
appearance  of  the  saw,  and  also  to  pack  in  cases  having 
sufficient  strength  to  stand  hard  usage,  as  most  of  our 
products  are  extremely  heavy  for  their  sizes  and  we  have 
found  it  necessary  to  study  carefully  the  correct  quan- 
tities of  each  article  to  be  put  into  a  case.  We  find  it 
necessary  to  watch  our  packing  force  closely  so  that 
there  will  be  no  deterioration  in  the  quality  of  material 
used  and  the  extreme  care  necessary  to  ensure  the  ar- 
rival of  goods  in  satisfactory  condition." 


414  EXPORT  PACKING 

Weighing  Apparatus. — It  is  not  always  the  concerns 
with  the  largest  apparent  consumer  demand  for  their 
goods,  nor  again  those  manufacturing  a  line  with 
^*  staple ''  characteristics  that  distinguisli  themselves  pre- 
eminently in  the  field  of  export  packing.  In  the  course  of 
the  very  extensive  investigation  that  preceded  the  writ- 
ing of  the  book,  the  writer  was  impressed  many  times 
with  the  work  that  is  being  done  and  that  has  been  done 
for  many  years  by  organizations  active  the  world  over, 
it  is  true,  but  that  do  not  take  up  the  first  page  of  the 
newspaper  every  day. 

The  above  paragraph  is  particularly  true  in  its  ap- 
plication to  the  export  work  of  one  or  two  factories  man- 
ufacturing weighing  apparatus  and  scales.  One  of  these 
factories  has  been  in  the  export  business  for  more  than 
half  a  century  and  its  activities  have  been  characterized 
by  a  consistent  effort  to  solve  the  export  problem.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  this  particular  organization  has 
proceeded  along  most  commendable  lines  in  determining 
what  is  and  what  is  not  adequate  export  packing,  for  fac- 
tory practice  has  been  constantly  checked  up  with  results 
in  the  foreign  field.  The  export  package,  therefore,  in 
this  particular  case,  represents  an  admirable  blending 
of  the  technical  viewpoint  of  the  manufacturers  and  the 
practical  utilitarian  opinion  of  the  consignee  and  user  of 
the  apparatus. 

A  well  known  company  sends  several  photographs 
illustrating  its  method  of  knocking  down  and  pack- 
ing its  weighing  machines  for  export  which  are  repro- 
duced on  pages  416  and  419.  Writing  in  this  regard  the 
company  in  question  remarks :  ^ '  Our  method  of  packing 
the  Scales  illustrated  and  other  varieties,  is  the  outgrowth 
of  our  factory  practice  covering  a  good  deal  more  than 
half  a  century,  and  with  it  have  been  incorporated  many 
valuable  suggestions  resulting  from  the  assistance  and  co- 
operation of  numerous  correspondents  and  customers  in 
a  large  volume  of  business  with  foreign  countries.  There 
has  been  a  very  limited  amount  of  breakage  reported  in 
any  of  our  shipments.''     The  captions  attached  to  the 


Courtrsu  of  Greenfield  Tap  d  Die  Corp. 
Standard  Case  for  JScrew  Plates. 
l^hows  waterproof  envelope  always  employed  in  this  case. 


Courtesy  of  Greenfield  Tap  d  Die  Corp. 
Packing   of   Screw   Plates. 
Shows  method  of  placing  screw  plates  in  waterproof  envelope. 


Courtesu  of  Greenfield  Tap  d  Die  Corp. 
Case  Beady  to  be  Closed. 
The  waterproof  envelope  is  here  shown  folded  and  ready  to  6e  sealed. 

415 


Courtesy  of  The  Ho  ice  Scale  Co. 
Portable  Platform  Scale  Packed. 
Portable  platform  scale  dismounted  and  placed  in  an  uncovered  case. 


Courtesy  of  The  Howe  Scale  Co. 
Packing  of  a  Counter  Scale. 
Counter  scale  knocked  down  and  packed  in  case. 
416 


THE  PACKING  OF  SMALL  APPARATUS    417 

several  cuts  reproduced  will  be  found  self-explanatory. 

The  Packing  of  Shotguns. — A  prominent  exporter 
states :  *^  We  use  the  greatest  care  in  packing,  first  cover- 
ing our  guns  with  oil,  after  which  they  are  wrapped  in 
oil  paper  and  then  receive  a  second  wrapping  in  strong 
packing  paper.  Following  this  they  are  packed  in  in- 
dividual corrugated  paper  cartons  of  good  weight  and 
strength.  The  stock  and  barrels  are  knocked  down  and  are 
so  arranged  in  the  cartons  that  they  cannot  shift  about 
or  rattle  in  course  of  transit.  Finally,  these  individual 
cartons  are  packed  in  a  strong  and  well  made  wooden 
case.  For  distant  points  like  Australia  we  line  our  cases 
with  tin  but  for  nearby  points  like  Cuba  and  Mexico  we 
do  not  consider  the  tin  lining  necessary.  Our  cases  are 
made  of  strong,  heavy,  matched  boards  and  have  ade- 
quate iron  strapping  at  both  ends.'' 

The  Packing  of  Handles. — A  house  doing  an  interna- 
tional business  in  handles  writes:  *^Our  axe,  pick, 
sledge  and  similar  handles  are  usually  packed  in  closed 
cases,  each  containing  ten  dozen  handles  when  they  are 
destined  for  Europe  and  South  American  countries,  but 
for  Australia  and  New  Zealand  the  cases  usually  con- 
taining only  six  dozen.  Short  handles,  such  as  hammer 
and  hatchet  handles,  are  packed  from  twelve  to  twenty 
dozen  to  a  case.  All  of  our  cases  are  made  from  sound 
lumber,  its  thickness  depending  on  the  style  and  quantity 
of  handles  to  be  packed.  *  We  always  use  cement  coated 
nails  and  strap  our  cases  with  band  iron.  Occasionally 
we  ship  handles  in  heavy  burlap  bags  tied  with  two  or 
three  ply  sisal  rope.  We  have  had  practically  no  trouble 
because  of  faulty  packing  and  no  claims  for  loss  of  goods 
on  arrival  in  foreign  countries." 

The  Packing  of  Forks,  Hoes  and  Shovels.— A  large 
manufacturer  of  forks,  hoes  and  rakes  states  that  ''in 
packing  forks,  hoes  and  especially  garden  rakes  some 
waste  space  cannot  be  avoided  even  though  cases  are 
made  to  fit  the  length  of  the  tools  as  closely  as  possible. 
Hoes,  for  example,  are  laid  in  the  case  in  the  following 
way :  A  few  hoes  are  laid  with  heads  fitting  one  over  an- 


418  EXPORT  PACKING 

other,  then  a  few  more  laid  in  the  opposite  direction,  their 
heads  fitting  one  on  top  of  another,  the  ends  of  the  sec- 
ond group  or  bundle  being  close  up  to  the  heads  of  the 
first.  This  leaves  more  or  less  vacant  space  between  the 
bundles  and  our  customers  are  always  urged  to  order 
separate  handles  for  repair  purposes  or  small  tools  with 
which  this  space  can  be  filled.  Such  smaller  articles  can 
usually  be  packed  with  the  larger  tools  without  increasing 
the  size  of  the  cases  and  thus  both  freight  and  packing 
charge  is  saved,  as  we  pack  the  smaller  tools  without 
charge  when  they  can  be  packed  with  other  goods  and 
do  not  necessitate  a  larger  packing  case/' 

A  large  shipper  of  hay  forks,  rakes  and  handles  sends 
the  following  description  of  his  practice  in  shipping  these 
commodities:  **Hay  forks,  rakes  and  handles  are  usually 
packed  loose  from  ten  to  twenty  dozen  in  a  case  weighing 
gross  from  360  to  900  pounds.  The  cases  are  made  of 
from  %"  to  %"  lumber  dressed  on  both  sides,  lined  with 
oil  paper  and  having  from  two  to  three  bands  of  iron 
around  each  case,  the  number  depending  upon  the  weight 
of  the  case.  We  also  pack  handles  in  skeleton  crates 
containing  from  ten  to  twelve  dozen,  and  sometimes  in 
bundles  without  crating,  containing  two  dozen  or  twenty- 
five  handles  each.  *  * 

A  house  making  a  specialty  of  the  manufacture  of 
shovels,  which  has  had  wide  experience  in  export  work, 
sends  two  photographs,  reproduced  on  page  420,  which 
sufficiently  explain  the  packing  of  the  shovel  blades. 
Handles  are  usually  not  packed  in  the  same  case  with  the 
blades  as  no  vacant  spaces  are  left  in  this  style  of  pack- 
ing. The  handles  are  usually  tied  together  and  shipped 
separately  and,  in  fact,  the  shovels  themselves  are  some- 
times bound  together  with  wire  and  shipped  in  burlap 
bundles. 

The  Packing  of  Small  Apparatus.— A  good  example  of 
the  fashion  in  which  small  apparatus  may  properly  be 
shipped  for  export  is  to  be  observed  in  the  reproduction 
of  a  photograph  (page  423)  of  a  case  containing  50 
water  meters.    The  manufacturer  describes  this  case  as 


419 


These   cases   contain 
packed  with  blades  hut  are  shipped  separately 


('nin-f(H!/   <if    7'hc    Wiuniii) 

i'.\s]scr  OF  Shovel  I^laoks. 
from   12    dozen  to  15   dozen   blades. 


■<l   Works. 


Handles  are  not 


Courtesy  of  The  Wyoming  Shovel  Works. 
Baling  of  Round  Shovel  Blades. 
Shovels  are  hurlappcd,  one  dozen  to  a  bundle.     They  are  tied  together  with 
wire  before  burlapping  and  are  shipped  as  shovm.     On  the  right  is  a  case  of 
blades  ready  for  stenciling. 

420 


THE  PACKING  OF  SMALL  APPARATUS    421 

follows:  "These  are  boxed  in  cases  containing  five 
meters  each,  made  of  1/2"  N.C.  pine  with  %"  lumber 
dividing  the  compartments  of  each  meter.  The  ten  dif- 
ferent containers  are  then  put  into  the  master  or  shipping 
case  which  is  made  of  %"  N.C.  pine  with  %"  x  3"  bdt- 
tens  on  both  ends  and  bottom,  all  securely  bound  with 
1%"  band  iron.  This  method  of  packing  ten  containers 
in  a  master  shipping  case  is  necessary  to  ensure  safe 
ocean  transportation  of  this  class  of  material,  and  also 
serves  to  make  pilfering  during  transit  difficult." 

A  prominent  manufacturer  of  ball  bearings  writes: 
"In  the  first  place  we  wrap  our  goods  in  oiled  paper  in 
individual  cartons.  The  average  packing  case  we  use  is 
made  of  1"  stock,  double  grooved,  matched  boards,  cleated 
on  the  ends.  We  use  a  No.  16  cement  coated  nail  and 
enough  of  them  to  secure  maximum  resistance  without 
damaging  the  boards.  The  inside  of  the  case  is  always 
lined  with  waterproof  paper  and  the  cases  are  made  of 
any  suitable  size  so  that  the  bearings  in  their  individual 
cartons  pack  closely,  resulting  in  a  gross  weight  on  an 
average  of  380  pounds.  All  cases  are  regularly  strapped 
with  metal." 

The  Packing  of  Precision  Instruments. — A  manufac- 
turer of  finely  adjusted  electrical  instruments  describes 
his  packing  methods  as  follows :  ^  *  Our  method  of  pack- 
ing, which  we  have  found  highly  successful,  has  been  de- 
veloped in  many  years'  experience  in  making  foreign 
shipments.  Our  goods  are  of  delicate  construction  and 
are  subject  to  damage  from  shocks  in  transit.  The  ma- 
terial shipped  is  of  the  delicate  character  of  watchwork 
and  even  though  our  problem  is  not  so  complicated  as 
many,  nevertheless  it  is  not  the  simplest  in  the  world. 
We  have  to  take  special  precautions  to  see  that  all  parts 
are  properly  cushioned  with  packing  material  to  guard 
against  shocks  in  transit.  Of  course,  we  have  to  use  cases 
entirely,  employing  new  boxes  of  %"  lumber  with  panel 
ends.  Each  piece  is  carefully  wrapped  in  moisture  proof 
tarpaulin  and  the  case  itself  is  lined  with  similar  ma- 
terial.   All  seams  are  glued  and  the  cases  strapped  with 


422  EXPORT  PACKING 

V  iron,  the  strapping  extending  around  the  ends  of  cases 
measuring  up  to  30"  in  length,  and  around  the  battens, 
spaced  about  one  foot  from  each  end,  in  the  case  of  larger 
boxes.  We  have  standardized  on  live  cases  of  different 
sizes  all  of  the  same  type  of  construction  measuring  4,  7, 
11,  25  and  30  cubic  feet.  As  our  goods  are  light  and  must 
be  adequately  cushioned  our  largest  case  seldom  exceeds 
600  pounds  gross  weight.  In  some  instances,  we  use 
metal  lined  cases  with  soldered  seams,  but  usually  this 
method  of  packing  is  not  deemed  necessary.  We  have  few 
complaints  on  account  of  damage  in  transit,  very  likely 
because  our  goods  are  light  in  weight  and  the  cases  are 
well  designed  and  of  sufficiently  heavy  material.'* 

Automobile  Lighting  and  Starting  Apparatus. — The 
automatic  starting  apparatus  now  so  generally  used  as 
an  accessory  in  the  manufacture  of  automobiles  is  prac- 
tically an  American  invention,  and  is  rapidly  being 
extended  in  its  application  to  cars  of  European  manufac- 
ture. This  has  developed  a  most  promising  overseas  de- 
mand for  the  American  manufacturer  and  in  order  to 
meet  this  demand  good  constructive  work  has  had  to  be 
done  in  the  export  package. 

The  problem  here  is  the  packing  of  a  small  unit,  of  a 
fairly  robust  character,  but  at  the  same  time  one  that 
must  be  sufficiently  protected  against  the  hazards  of  the 
voyage.  The  export  packing  practice  has  developed  a 
container,  strongly  built,  containing  compartments  which 
in  effect  give  each  unit  a  nest  of  its  own  thoroughly  iso- 
lated from  the  rest  of  the  shipment. 

A  manufacturing  company  doing  an  international 
business  furnishes  photographs  (see  pages  423,  424  and 
427),  and  comments  as  follows :  "The  first  principle  to  be 
noted  is  that  when  two  planks  are  necessary  in  building  a 
box  they  should  be  tongued  and  grooved  to  guard  against 
the  opening  of  unseasoned  material.  Our  cases  are  made 
from  %"  N.C.  pine  reenforced  at  both  ends  with  cleats. 
It  will  be  observed  that  each  machine  is  contained  in 
what  is  practically  a  box  of  its  own,  owing  to  the  divisions 
which  have  been  made.    Before  being  packed  all  parts 


Courtesy  uj   Worthington  Fump  d  Machinery  Corp. 
Packing  of  Water  Meters. 

Each  meter  is  boxed  in  container  made  of  i^"  N.  C.  pine,  the  compartments 
hciny  divided  b]/  %"  lumber.  Ten  containers  at  a  time  are  then  pla<;cd  in 
shipping  case,  which  is  made  of  %"  pine.  There  are  %"  x  3"  battens  on  both 
ends  and  bottom,  all  securelg  bound  iiith  I14"  band  iron. 


C0urtc.f1/  of  Bijur  Motor  Appliance  Co. 
Packtxg  of  Generators. 
Each   machine  is  separately  wrapped  and  placed  in  individual  compartment. 
Blocks  used  to  keep  generators  in  place  can  be  seen  in  the  empty  compartments, 

423 


Comrieaw  •/  Bijur  Motrjr  ApplUimce  Co, 
OOMFIXIED  Cask  TCS.  G£NT&ATX>SS. 

immt  ta   corer  find   bottom,  wuide  to  pretent 


A  \    f 


Moton  ore  pmdked 


Comrte99  of  Bifmr  Motor  Appliance  Co. 
Packing  of  Motobs. 

te  wmUrproof  pmptr  mmd  pimced  te  oepmrmte  eomportmentt. 
**^^  of  emoeo  to  fU  mmt  wmder  Otmftimt. 

434 


TEE  PACKING  OF  SMALL  APPARATUS    425 

liable  to  exposure  are  greased  and  each  machine  is  then 
securely  packed  in  Safepack  waterproof  paper.  We  use 
%"  steel  binding  around  the  ends  of  the  cases  which  are 
nailed  with  8-penny  cement  coated  nails.  The  photograph 
shows  the  compartments  w^hich  are  made  to  hold  each 
machine  and  the  blocks  to  support  shafting  or  extended 
parts.'' 

The  Packing  of  Sewing  Machines. — A  large  manufac- 
turer of  sewing  machines  in  sending  photographs  of  how 
his  goods  are  packed  (see  pages  427,  428  and  435), 
writes:  ^'All  of  our  machines  before  being  packed  for 
export  are  treated  with  an  anti-rust  preparation  which 
protects  all  the  bright  parts  while  the  goods  are  in  tran- 
sit. Hand  machines  are  packed  individually  in  strong 
wooden  boxes  made  to  fit  the  machine  and  two,  three  or 
four  are  crated  together  with  wooden  cleats.  Foot 
machines  are  packed  flat,  knocked  down,  in  strong  wooden 
cases  lined  with  waterproof  paper,  each  machine  com- 
plete in  its  case.  For  some  of  our  customers  who  so  de- 
sire, certain  models  of  our  foot  machines  are  packed  two 
machines  to  a  case,  thus  effecting  some  saving  in  weight 
and  measurement.  In  fact,  we  employ  various  methods 
of  packing  as  meeting  the  wishes  and  ideas  of  our  agents 
in  various  foreign  markets. 

**A11  of  our  packing  cases  are  very  strong  and  well 
made  and  it  is  seldom  indeed  that  we  hear  of  one  of  them 
being  seriously  damaged  while  in  transit.  In  fact,  we 
think  that  this  operates  against  us  m  some  cases  because, 
as  occasionally  happens,  a  package  containing  a  sewing 
machine  drops  out  of  a  steamer's  sling  when  being  loaded 
or  unloaded  and  strikes  the  dock  or  the  deck  of  the  ship. 
The  case  itself  may  withstand  the  shock  though  some  of 
the  iron  castings  therein  may  possibly  be  broken,  and  in 
such  cases  the  customer  is  sure  to  take  the  position  that 
the  damage  resulted  from  poor  packing  because  there  is 
no  outside  evidence  of  damage  on  the  case.  Fortunately, 
however,  we  have  little  trouble  of  this  nature,  and  while 
we  assume  no  responsibility  for  the  safe  delivery  of  the 
goods  after  they  have  left  our  hands  in  gobd  condition. 


426  EXPORT  PACKING 

we  have  always  maintained  a  liberal  policy  with  respect 
to  furnishing  a  reasonable  number  of  parts  without 
charge  to  replace  damages.** 

In  connection  with  export  shipments  of  sewing  ma- 
chines, a  prominent  New  York  export  merchant  calls  at- 
tention to  a  complaint  in  this  respect  received  from  a 
foreign  customer,  who  states  that  out  of  a  recent  ship- 
ment of  24  machines  four  arrived  in  broken  condition. 
This  correspondent  attributes  the  breakage  to  the  fact 
that  sufficient  cushioning  material  was  not  used  in  pro- 
tecting the  castings  of  the  frames,  and  strenuously  com- 
plains of  the  loss  of  sales  and  profits  because  of  the  dam- 
aged and  useless  condition  of  the  machines  when  they 
were  received.  He  is  of  the  opinion  that  all  iron  castings 
ought  to  be  nested  in  all-around  packing  of  excelsior  or 
some  similar  material,  at  least  1"  and  preferably  2"  in 
thickness.  In  this  same  connection  attention  may  be 
directed  to  the  instructions  issued  by  the  General  En- 
gineer Depot  of  the  United  States  Army,  which  have  been 
referred  to  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  the  packing  of 
machinery,  in  the  course  of  which  it  is  to  be  remarked  that 
these  instructions  provide  that  all  castings  forming  parts 
of  machines  must  be  thus  cushioned  when  they  approach 
closely  to  the  walls  of  the  exterior  case. 

Electric  Fans  and  Motors.— A  large  manufacturer 
writes  in  regard  to  his  packing  that  8-inch  fan  motors 
are  usually  packed  18  in  a  case,  the  blades,  guards  and 
guard  supports  36  sets  in  a  case,  which  is  always  securely 
strap  ironed.  Nine-inch  motors  are  usually  packed  12 
in  a  case,  the  blades,  guards  and  guard  supports  24  sets 
in  a  case,  while  12  and  16-inch  fan  motors  are  usually 
packed  six  in  a  case  and  the  blades,  guards  and  guard 
supports  24  sets  in  a  case. 

Twelve  and  sixteen-inch  ventilating  fans  are  packed 
singly,  each  complete  fan  in  a  strap  ironed  box,  three  of 
these  individual  boxes  being  crated  securely  together.  In 
the  packing  of  ceiling  fans  the  motors  are  packed  in- 
dividually in  iron  strapped  cases,  the  ceiling  canopy,  hook 
and  insulated  hanger  being  packed  in  the  box  with  the 


mmmmammmmm 

Courtesy  of  Bijur  Mntor    \i,i,ii.ni<r  r,i. 
Complete   Case  of  Switch   Panels. 

f^rcitch   panels   comprising   fuses,   ammeter  and    switch  individually  wrapped 
\d  firmly  held  hy  means  of  excelsior. 


...         „ J 

Courtesy  of  The  'New  Home  Sewing  Machine  Co. 
Disassembling  of  Sewing  Machine. 
Photograph  shows  sevnng  machine  disassembled  ready  to  6e  placed  in  the  case. 

427 


I 


Courtfxy   0/   The  .\ew  Home   ,SiWi)i<i   Macliine   Co. 

Casing  of  Sewing  Machine. 

Woodwork  and  head  placed  in  case.     Head  is  wrapped  and  securely  cleated 
to  bottom  of  case. 


Courtesy  oj  The  New  Home  Sewing  Machine  Co. 

Method  of  Packing  Sewing  Machine. 

Case   containing   sewing   machine  rsady  Jor   treadle   castings.     Note   method 
of  holding  parts  in  place. 

428 


THE  PACKING  OF  SMALL  APPARATUS    429 

fan  motor,  three  of  these  boxes  being  crated  securely  to- 
gether. The  blades  are  packed  four  sets  in  a  box,  six  of 
which  are  crated  •  together.  The  hanger  rods  (if  re- 
quired) are  packed  separately. 

Small  motors  are  not  packed  individually  but  several 
are  packed  in  a  box  according  to  the  number  of  motors 
on  the  order  and  their  sizes.  Motors  of  from  i/^  h.p. 
upwards  are  usually  boxed  entirely  and  bolted  on  skids 
through  the  bottom  of  the  box.  They  are  braced  from 
the  top  to  hold  them  securely  and  the  cases  are  lined  with 
tar  paper  and  strapped  with  band  iron. 

Packing  Bolts,  Nuts  and  Rivets. — A  large  New  York 
exporter  doing  business  wnth  the  Dutch  East  Indies  com- 
plains rather  bitterly  of  the  light  barrels  or  boxes  in 
which  bolts,  nuts  and  rivets  are  usually  shipped,  stating 
that  he  has  not  yet  made  a  single  shipment  of  these  com- 
modities which  arrived  safely  at  port  of  destination.  It 
has  been  his  experience  that  a  large  percentage  of  the 
cases,  boxes  or  barrels  arrive  broken  with  merchandise 
partly  lost.  Much  stronger  cases  must  be  used  and  this 
exporter  advocates  extra  heavy  and  strong  boxes  thor- 
oughly well  strapped  and  weighing  gross  not  to  exceed 
200  pounds. 

The  Packing  of  Chains. — A  manufacturer  writes: 
''We  manufacture  chains  of  round  material  with  welded 
links  and  in  all  sizes  up  to  and  including  2V2"  stud  link 
cable  chain.  Sizes  larger  than  1"  are  shipped  loose,  not 
packed  in  any  way.  Small  sizes  of  chain  are  shipped  in 
heavy  oil  barrels  well  coopered  and  in  some  instances  are 
ordered  packed  in  wooden  cases,  but  this  involves  an 
additional  charge  because  of  the  heavy  expense  for  this 
style  of  packing. '* 

Another  manufacturer  of  chains  states:  ''Some  of 
our  chains  are  packed  in  bags,  some  in  crates,  some  loose 
and  some  simply  wrapped  in  paper.  We  are  very  careful 
to  line  all  cases  and  barrels  with  waterproof  paper  and 
usually  sprinkle  over  the  chains  a  non-hydrating  product 
in  order  to  prevent  rust  during  transit.  Small  sizes  of 
cases  and  barrels  are  used  in  shipping  to  the  West  Coast 


430  EXPORT  PACKING 

of  South  America,  but  in  principle  we  have  to  follow  the 
instructions  of  the  importers  in  different  parts  of  the 
world  which  vary  with  almost  every  country. '^ 

The  Packing  of  Tin  Plate.— No  little  discussion  has 
arisen  regarding  the  proper  packing  of  tin  plate  for  ex- 
port since  the  American  industry  in  this  line  assumed 
such  large  proportions  as  the  result  of  the  great  war. 
The  American  purchasing  agent  for  large  meat  packing 
establishments  in  South  America  states  in  a  letter  that 
so  many  complaints  were  received,  both  from  merchants 
as  well  as  from  packing  houses,  to  the  effect  that  tin  plate 
had  been  delivered  in  very  poor  condition,  in  some  cases 
accompanied  by  very  disagreeable  claims,  that  he  has 
persuaded  his  clients  to  order  all  tin  plate  shipped  in  tin 
lined  cases.  He  writes  that  *'the  thin  material  used  in 
the  absence  of  tin  linings  will  not  suffice  to  convey  any 
case  of  tin  plate  to  South  America  with  any  degree  of 
assurance  that  it  will  be  delivered  in  good  condition.  * ' 

An  important  New  York  exporter  of  steel  products 
writes  that  when  tin  plate  is  packed  in  a  box  designed  for 
domestic  shipment  and  entirely  satisfactory  for  that  pur- 
pose, it  has  been  found  in  experience  that  such  a  package 
is  entirely  unsatisfactory  for  export  even  when  it  is  tin 
lined  and  strongly  strapped.  Foreign  buyers,  this  ex- 
porter urges,  must  be  persuaded  to  pay  for  the  expense 
of  providing  extra  strong  wooden  cases  built  to  stand 
transhipment,  if  not  for  the  additional  charge  of  adequate 
tin  lining. 

A  large  manufacturer  of  tin  plate  states  in  a  letter: 
**  About  75  per  cent  of  tin  plate  shipped  for  export  moves 
out  in  wooden  boxes  with  iron  straps  around  the  ends 
of  the  boxes.  We  have  endeavored  for  a  long  time  to 
standardize  tin  plate  packing  by  having  all  consumers 
take  their  tin  plate  packed  in  tin  lined  cases,  hermetically 
sealed,  and  with  the  wooden  box  iron  strapped  around  the 
edges,  but  this  additional  cost  of  packing  amounts  to  an 
average  of  about  $1  per  unit  and  is  looked  on  as  an  ex- 
cessive cost  added  to  the  merchandise;  yet  the  claims 
arising  from  the  handling  of  the  material,  due  to  dam- 


THE  PACKING  OF  SMALL  APPARATUS    431 

aged  cases  and  damaged  tin  plate,  almost  equals  this 
additional  cost  without  calculating  the  annoyance  and 
injury  that  is  done  the  plate  in  general. 

^*One  point  that  has  done  more  than  anything  else  to 
discourage  the  adopting  of  the  tin  lined  case  for  our 
packing,  has  been  the  excessive  high  cost  of  our  product 
for  the  last  five  or  six  years.  Perhaps  we  will  be  more 
successful  as  we  get  down  to  a  more  reasonable  price 
for  this  commodity  which  would  not  only  reduce  the  cost 
of  this  special  packing,  but  would  not  be  so  serious  a 
factor  in  the  cost  of  material.'' 


Courtesy  of  American  Steel   Export   Co. 

Method  of  packing  tin  plate. 

There  seems  to  be  some  difference  of  opinion  among 
manufacturers  and  exporters  as  to  the  proper  additional 
charge  for  lining  shipping  cases  with  tin.  A  prominent 
house  sends  the  drawing  shown  above  and  states  in  a 
letter:  ^^The  usual  method  of  packing  is  in  light  wooden 
boxes,  containing  56,  112  or  224  sheets,  iron  strapped  all 
the  way  round  full  length  of  the  box.  If  the  plates  are 
likely  to  come  in  contact  with  water  or  excessive  damp- 
ness they  should  be  packed  in  a  tightly  soldered  metal 
envelope  inside  the  wooden  box.  When  packed  in  this 
manner  they  are  protected  against  moisture  and  may 
safely  be  stored.  There  is  an  additional  charge  for  these 
tin  lined  cases,  based  on  the  actual  cost  of  material  and 
labor.  This  charge  may  be  estimated  at  25  cents  per  base 
box  of  14"  x  20" — 112  sheets,  which  would  be  the  mini- 
mum charge.'' 

The  Packing  of  Wire. — An  experienced  shipper  states 
that  the  different  markets  require   different  styles   of 


432  EXPORT  PACKING 

packing  of  wire,  which  is  sometimes  shipped  in  bundles 
protected  with  paper  and  burlaping  or  sometimes  in  bur- 
laping  alone,  especially  when  it  is  a  shipment  of  galvan- 
ized wire.  All  wire  from  No.  25  to  30  gauge  should  be 
packed  in  specified  weight  bundles  and  wrapped  in  paper 
in  addition  to  burlap,  while  wire  finer  than  No.  30  gauge 
should  be  packed  in  barrels.  The  best  ways  of  thus  pack- 
ing have  been  explained  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  the 
packing  of  barreled  goods. 

The  Packing  of  Wire  Nails. — Wire  nails  are  usually 
exported  in  strong  kegs,  the  heads  of  which  are  reen- 
f  orced  top  and  bottom  with  steel  cleats.  Linings  of  heavy 
waterproof  tarred  paper  are  employed  by  one  large  ship- 
per to  protect  the  nails  from  damage  from  moisture.  Fur- 
ther details  regarding  shipments  in  kegs,  barrels,  etc., 
are  included  in  the  special  chapter  devoted  to  barreled 
goods. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

EXPORT  PACKING  OF  GLASS,  GLASSWARE  AND 
EXCEPTIONALLY  FRAGILE  GOODS 

NOTHING  surely  can  be  more  obvious  than  that  the 
packing  of  glass,  glassware,  commodities  shipped 
in  containers  of  glass,  and  all  similarly  fragile 
merchandise,  to  undergo  satisfactorily  the  many  and 
serious  hazards  of  overseas  shipment,  involves  problems 
calling  for  not  alone  the  highest  skill,  but  a  thorough- 
going scientific  study  of  the  packer  ^s  art,  and  all  con- 
ditions, possibilities  and  results.  Very  likely  it  may  be 
true  that  it  is  a  physical  impossibilty  so  to  pack  glass, 
and  other  exceedingly  fragile  merchandise,  that  breakage 
will  be  absolutely  prevented.  At  the  same  time,  it  is 
plainly  so  much  to  the  advantage  of  the  future  trade  of 
manufacturers  and  shippers  of  such  merchandise  that 
their  products  arrive  in  the  hands  of  their  customers 
with  a  minimum  of  damage,  that  this  problem  should  be 
regarded  as  peculiarly  deserving  of  attention.  Most  im- 
porters in  other  countries  of  the  world  are  always  willing 
to  pay  somewhat  better  prices  for  goods  of  this  descrip- 
tion, when  they  can  be  assured  that  the  contents  of  the 
cases,  when  received,  will  be  unbroken,  or  involve  com- 
paratively little  loss.  Manufacturers  must  remember 
that  breakage  not  only  causes  extra  expense  to  cus- 
tomers, but  deprives  them  of  goods  which  may  be  ur- 
gently needed  for  sale,  on  whose  safe  arrival  the  im- 
porter may  have  been  counting.  Some  manufacturers 
offer  to  make  good  any  loss  from  breakage  due  to  careless 
packing,  but  the  mere  refunding  of  the  cost  of  broken 
goods,  or  of  supplying  new  goods  in  place  of  those  dam- 
aged, is  by  no  means  sufficient,  for  it  is  to  be  remembered 
that  tlie  consignee  has  paid  ocean  freights,  import  duties, 

433 


434  EXPORT  PACKING 

landing  and  many  other  charges  on  the  goods  which  have 
arrived  broken  and  useless. 

Unfortunately  it  is  doubtless  true  that  the  United 
State  has  not,  in  recent  years,  achieved  a  wholly  enviable 
reputation  for  packing  glass  and  glassware.  The  man- 
ager of  the  Chilean  office  of  a  large  New  York  export 
house  states,  that  the  average  breakage  of  American 
glassware  shipped  to  South  America  ranges  from  20  per 
cent  to  35  per  cent',  caused  absolutely  by  poor  packing, 
whereas  the  average  breakage  of  European  glassware, 
because  of  the  excellence  of  that  packing,  runs  only  from 
2  per  cent  up  to  5  per  cent.  Complaints  of  this  descrip- 
tion were  very  notable  soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
great  war,  when  the  stoppage  of  European  shipments  of 
window  glass  and  plate  glass,  and  in  general  all  kinds 
of  glassware,  brought  export  opportunities  to  the  door 
of  American  manufacturers  of  such  goods  which  they 
had  never  enjoyed  before.  Complaints  of  breakages 
amounting  to  as  much  as  50  per  cent  and  60  per  cent  were 
at  first  by  no  means  uncommon.  Fortunately  we  seem 
to  have  learned  rapidly  how  to  improve  our  packing  of 
such  materials,  for  statements  have  recently  been  made 
by  South  American  importers  that  the  breakage  on  Amer- 
ican goods  has  of  late  been  only  about  6  per  cent,  as  an 
average.  However,  even  this  percentage  is  excessive,  as 
will  be  seen  from  a  comparison  of  the  percentage  of  Euro- 
pean goods  which  arrive  in  similar  ports  in  better  export 
packages.  In  some  markets  the  English  packing  is  re- 
garded as  the  best,  and  there  seem  to  have  been  several 
different  kinds  of  packing  employed  by  English  manu- 
facturers, some  of  them  winding  glass  in  straw  and  se- 
curely fastening  it  in  the  case,  and  others  employing 
cases  with  wooden  partitions.  On  the  other  hand,  Bel- 
gian manufacturers  are  commended  by  many  importers, 
and  manufacturers  of  that  country  seem  to  have  set  the 
example,  which  is  now  being  most  generally  followed  by 
American  manufacturers,  of  employing  the  ** floated*' 
package — that  is  to  say,-  of  packing  the  goods  themselves 
in  separate  cases  and  sometimes  in  cartons  which  are 


1  «S«H»^f- 


iXkm:^^ 


Courtesy  of  The  New  Home  Sewing  Machine  Co. 
Case  Containing  Sewing  Machine. 
Photograph  shows  all  parts  of  sewing  machine  in  case  ready  for  cover. 


Courtesxi  of  IIozcl-Atlas  Glass  Co. 


Packing  op  Jars  and  Tumblers. 
Case  shown  at  left  contains  small  opal  jars  and  is  lined  with  oil  paper  to 
protect  metal  caps  of  jars.  Jars  are  packed  three  to  a  package  wrappe^  in 
heavy  paper  and  are  further  protected  by  refuse  prairie  grass.  At  right  ts  shown 
case  containing  nested  tumblers  individually  wrapped  in  paper  and  packedi 
flat.     Note  protective  lining  of  prairie  grass. 

435 


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436 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  FRAGILE  GOODS  437 

floated  on  top  and  bottom  cushions  and  between  walls  of 
excelsior,  or  other  similar  material.  The  Japanese  are 
said  to  have  a  way  of  packing  glassware  which  makes  a 
compact  and  fairly  safe  package,  each  article  being 
wrapped  in  grass  or  straw,  and  nested  whenever  possible. 

It  must  always  be  remembered,  in  the  packing  of 
highly  fragile  commodities  of  any  description,  that  ship- 
ping cases  containing  such  goods  will  be  subject  to  pre- 
cisely the  identical  treatment  to  which  cases  of  hardware 
or  any  other  commodities  are  subject,  in  loading  aboard 
steamers,  unloading  into  lighters,  rough  handling  on 
shore,  etc.  The  warning  signal  ^*  Glass — Handle  With 
are,''  no  matter  how  big  the  letters  with  which  it  is  sten- 
ciled on  the  outside  of  a  case,  cannot  be  relied  upon  to 
influence  the  heart  or  the  hand  of  the  longshoreman  in 
the  United  States  or  in  any  other  country,  even  if  he 
understands  the  English  language,  which  in  our  export 
markets  is  rarely  the  case.  Shipments  of  glass  or  simi- 
larly fragile  goods  are  likely  to  have  dropped  upon  them 
at  any  time  a  ton  or  two  of  steel  rails,  lard,  or  something 
else,  or  just  as  likely  to  fall  out  of  ships'  slings  onto 
decks  or  quays  as  are  cases  of  boots  and  shoes.  Shipping 
cases  must  be  so  constructed,  and  the  contents  so  pro- 
tected, that  our  customers  in  other  countries  will  be  fully 
satisfied  with  their  trade  with  us,  and  contrast  our 
methods  favorably  with  those  of  competing  manufactur- 
ers in  other  countries. 

Export  Packing  of  Sheet  Glass. — Before  the  war, 
English  and  Belgian  window  and  plate  glass  virtually 
controlled  the  markets  of  the  world,  and  considerable  Bel- 
gian glass  was  imported  by  the  United  States.  The 
English  packing  was  commended  by  importers  in  some 
markets  for  its  ample  cases  of  heavy  lumber,  usually 
from  12  to  16  plates  being  put  into  a  case,  tissue  paper 
separating  the  plates,  and  preventing  scratching.  A  layer 
of  wood  shavings  was  usually  employed  in  the  bottom  of 
the  case,  and  a  smaller  layer  placed  on  top,  and  shavings 
stuffed  tightly  all  around.  From  8  to  10  of  these  smaller 
cases  were  then  packed  in  the  large  outside  container, 


438  EXPORT  PACKING 

tightly  stuffed  all  around  with  straw,  and  finally  strongly 
banded  with  iron  strapping.  Breakage  resulting  when 
this  style  of  packing  was  employed  is  described  as  being 
insignificant.  Belgian  manufacturers  packed  their  sheet 
glass  tightly  in  a  light  case  similar  to  that  usually  em- 
ployed by  American  manufacturers  in  their  domestic 
trade.  This  was  enclosed  in  a  strong,  heavy  outside  case, 
of  sufficient  size  that  ample  cushioning  was  provided  on 
all  sides  of  the  inside  case,  which  contained  the  glass. 
Thus  any  blows  received  were  distributed  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  glass  itself  was  practically  uninjured.  Some 
importers  have  recommended  that  instead  of  having  the 
walls  of  the  inside  case  parallel  with  those  of  the  outer 
case,  it  should  lie  diagonally,  with  two  corners  touching 
the  outside  case,  but  the  two  opposite  corners  thoroughly 
cushioned.  This  fashion  of  packing  is  thought  by  some, 
when  the  cushions  are  ample  and  properly  made,  to  re- 
duce still  further  the  risk  of  damage  from  shocks. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  a  large  American  manufac- 
turer, there  are  reproduced  on  page  436  three  cuts 
which  illustrate  clearly  the  different  packages  which  this 
manufacturer  has  adopted.  The  company  states  that 
the  lumber  employed  in  the  packing  cases  is  nisuafly 
North  Carolina  pine,  but  occasionally  hemlock  and  chest- 
nut, from  %"  to  1"  for  the  sides,  and  from  1"  to 
11/4''  for  the  ends,  top  and  bottom,  when  single  cases 
are  employed.  Double  export  cases  are  the  same,  so  far 
as  the  outer  case  is  concerned,  but  lighter  lumber  is  em- 
ployed for  the  inner  case,  usually  %"  thick  for  the  sides, 
%"  to  1"  for  the  ends  and  bottom,  and  %"  for  the  top. 
Hay  or  straw  is  used  by  this  manufacturer  in  packing 
plate  glass  and  window  glass,  and  very  often  excelsior 
is  used  in  the  packing  of  mirrors.  All  glass  is  embedded 
in  heavy  packing  ranging  from  V  to  3"  in  thickness, 
around  bottom,  top,  ends  and  sides.  Paper  placed  be- 
tween the  plates  prevents  the  immediate  contact  of  the 
glass,  and  is  used  in  packing  both  mirrors  and  plate  glass. 
In  the  case  of  mirrors,  there  is  also  always  an  envelope 
of  waterproof  paper,  and  when  mirrors  are  shipped  to 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  FRAGILE  GOODS  439 

tropical  countries,  cases  are  tin-lined,  as  a  final  precau- 
tion against  moisture.  Cases  are  well  battened,  and  en- 
circled with  substantial  iron  strapping. 

Further  and  more  detailed  particulars  are  supplied 
as  follows:  window  glass  is  packed  in  cases  containing 
from  50  to  100  square  feet  each.  GTross  weights  of  in- 
dividual cases  vary  somewhat,  but  average  about  as 
follows : 

50'  cases  —  single  strength 85  pounds  per  case 

double  strength 110       "  "     " 

IOC  cases  —  single  strength 150       "  "     " 

double  strength 200      "  "     " 

Cases  containing  60',  70',  80'  and  90'  vary  proportion- 
ately in  gross  weight.  Hay  or  straw  is  used  as  a  bedding. 
Thickness  of  packing  depends  on  the  size  of  the  glass  and 
case,  and  varies  from  %"  to  lY/  on  all  sides.  Packing 
cases  for  export,  as  a  rule,  are  determined  by  allowing 
1/4"  for  each  three  lights,  single,  or  12  to  the  inch ;  and  14" 
for  each  two  lights,  of  double,  or  8  to  the  inch — allowing 
%"  packing  space  on  each  side,  or  ly/'  to  the  case.  No 
head  is  cut  any  less  than  2%",  which  would  mean  that  on 
the  larger  sizes  there  might  be  a  little  more  tlian  1%" 
packing  space.  The  cases  are  2"  higher  than  width  of  the 
glass,  and  6"  longer  than  the  length.  However,  this  does 
not  hold  good  on  the  smaller  sizes.  On  the  14",  15",  16" 
and  18"  widths  the  case  is  1"  higher,  but  on  the  20"  and 
above,  2"  higher.  Solid  lumber,  usually  1/2"  thick,  is 
employed  for  the  sides,  and  %"  to  %"  for  the  top,  bottom 
and  ends.  Cases  measuring  over  70  united  inches  have 
battens  at  the  top,  bottom  and  sides,  and  frequently  on 
the  ends.  In* packing  cases  of  100  square  feet  in  40" 
bracket,  or  less,  there  are  two  compartments  in  the  case, 
separated  by  a  wood  partition. 

When  figuring  on  export  orders,  it  is  necessary  first  to 
know  what  the  gross  weight  is  to  be,  and  then  to  deter- 
mine the  proper  number  of  feet  to  be  packed  in  each  case. 
For  instance,  the  following  table  should  be  considered, 
in  which  750  pounds  has  been  taken  as  the  gross  weight 
of  the  case,  and  the  sizes  worked  out  accordingly. 


440 


EXPORT  PACKING 


In  making  single  solid  cases,  all  the  lumber  should  be 
very  sound,  and  of  1"  thickness.  It  should  be  in  the 
rough,  with  the  exception  of  the  lid,  one  side  of  which 
should  be  planed  for  stenciling.  There  should  be  a  2" 
cushion  of  straw  on  the  bottom,  top  and  both  ends,  and 
on  the  sides  there  should  be  1"  of  straw  between  the  glass 
and  the  box. 

INFORMATION  FOR  FIGURING  SIZE  OF  BOXES  FOR  EXPORT  SHIPMENTS 

SINGLE    SOLID    CASES 


Gross 
Weight 

Case 

Size  of 
Glass 

Lts. 
Per 
Box 

Size  Each  14  Lts. 

Inside  Dimensions 

Outside  Dimensions 

Width 

Height 

Length 

Width 

Height 

Length 

Width 

Height 

Length 

750# 
750# 

24"x60" 
24"x60" 

14 
10 

5" 
4" 

24" 
DOU 

24" 

60" 

BLE  SOL 

60" 

7" 

ID    CAS 

Ou 
13" 

In 
6" 

28" 

ES 

tside  C 
35" 

side  C 
28" 

64" 

ase 

70" 
ase 

64" 

11" 

Ou 
17" 

In 
9" 

30" 

tside  C 
37" 

side  C 
30" 

68" 

ase 

74" 
ase 

66" 

For  the  double  solid  cases  the  same  size  glass  and 
same  gross  weight  have  been  used,  and  in  arriving  at  fig- 
ures for  size  of  boxes  the  procedure  shown  above  and  in 
accordance  with  table  mentioned  is  followed.  The  out- 
side box  should  be  made  of  1"  sound,  rough  lumber,  and 
the  ends,  bottom  and  lid  of  the  inside  box  should  be  made 
of  1"  rough  lumber,  and  the  sides  of  %"  rough  lumber. 
Rails  and  braces  should  be  of  1"  rough  lumber.  In  pack- 
ing a  double,  solid  box  for  export,  a  2"  cushion  of  straw 
is  first  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  outside  box.  The  in- 
side box  is  then  placed  inside  of  it,  and  straw  is  packed 
all  around  the  ends  and  sides,  which  makes  a  2"  cushion 
of  straw  between  the  inside  and  the  outside  box.  A  2" 
cushion  of  straw  is  placed  in  the  bottom*  of  the  inside 
box,  and  the  glass  then  placed  in  this  box.  Ten  lights 
would  measure  about  3Vt"  in  width  (which  may  be  called 
4"),  24"  high  and  60"  long.  Straw  is  then  packed  all 
around  the  glass  and  on  the  top  of  the  glass,  which  makes 
a  2"  cushion  of  straw  on  the  bottom,  ends  and  top,  and  a 
1"  cushion  on  the  sides  between  the  glass  and  the  box. 
The  lid  is  then  put  on  the  inside  box.  Another  cushion 
of  straw  2"  thick  is  placed  on  the  top  of  the  lid  of  the  in- 


■:3 

l^fi^ 

5^ 

^pai^^f>c^:t«-,« 

Courtesy  of  Hazel-Atlas  Glass  Co. 
Packing  of  Tumblers. 
Shows  ware  before  packing.     Note  that  tumblers  are  each  wrapped  in  paper. 
Those  at  the  left  are  to  he  packed  nested  and  flat,  while  those  at  the  right  are 
to  he  packed  singly  and  up  and  down. 


Courtesy  of  Hazel-Atlas  Glass  Co. 
Method  of  Packing  Small  Bottles. 


Case  is  divided  by  partition  and  lined  with  felt  paper, 
between  each  row  and  each  layer  of  bottles. 

'  441 


Felt  paper  is  placed 


Courtesy  of  Haeel-Atlas  Glass  Co. 
Method  of  Packing  Fruit  Jars. 
Case  is   lined  with   waterproof  paper   to  protect   metal   parts   of  jars      Felt 
paper  is  wound  around  each  jar  and  is  placed  between  each  layer  of  jars. 


Courtesy  of  Parke.  Doris  rf  Co. 
Packing  of  Pharmaceutical  Products. 
Illustration  at  left  shows  method  of  packing  peroxide  in  individual  cartons, 
3  dozen  hemg  put  in  heavy  carton  packer.  Rix  Utrqe  cartons  fill  case.  Illustra- 
tion at  right  shows  packing  of  long-necked,  square  bottles  in  cases  of  6  dozen 
each.  Each  bottle  is  provided  with  straw  sleeve,  and  1  dozen  bottles  are 
packed  to  a  carton. 

442 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  FRAGILE  GOODS  443 

side  box,  the  lid  of  the  outside  box  is  nailed  on,  and  one 
side  of  the  lid  of  the  outside  box  is  planed  for  stenciling. 

It  is  customary  to  pack  polished  plate  glass  and  mir- 
rors in  cases  from  100  to  500  or  600  square  feet  each,  de- 
pending on  destination.  Both  single  and  double  casing 
is  used  for  mirrors,  but  rarely  for  plate  glass.  The 
gross  weight  of  case  packed  varies  according  to  the  quan- 
tity of  gla'ss  in  the  case.  When  packed  in  single  cases,  the 
gross  weight  is  estimated  at  from  4y2  to  5i^  pounds  per 
square  foot  of  glass  contained  in  the  case.  When  packed 
in  double  cases,  the  gross  weight  is  increased  from  50  to 
75  per  cent. 

Packing  of  Bottles,  Table  Glassware,  Etc. — A  prom- 
inent American  manufacturer  of  milk  bottles  states  that 
he  packs  his  products  in  crates  containing  6  dozen  quarts, 
6  dozen  pints  and  12  dozen  half-pints,  similar  to  the 
crates  employed  for  domestic  shipment,  except  heavier 
and  stronger.  Bottles  are  protected  each  from  its  neigh- 
bor by  a  padding  of  felt  paper,  usually  the  ordinary 
carpet  paper  being  employed. 

A  large  manufacturer  and  exporter  of  bottles  and 
fancy  glassware  submits  a  number  of  excellent  photo- 
graphs, reproduced  on  pages  435,  441,  442,  and  in  writing 
regarding  the  company's  packing,  states :  **When  we  first 
started  to  ship  to  the  export  trade  our  packing  was  un- 
doubtedly very  crude,  but  we  have  not  at  any  time  lost 
sight  of  the  advantage  of  properly  protecting  our  ware, 
with  the  result  that  we  have  been  able  to  standardize  our 
packages  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  maximum  protection  to 
the  contents.  As  we  ship  to  practically  every  port  in  the 
world  in  considerable  quantities,  with  a  rare  claim  for 
breakage,  we  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  our  pack- 
ages are  sufficient  protection  to  the  ware  and  will  carry 
without  damage  to  the  contents,  unless  the  shipment  is 
roughly  handled  en  route,  in  which  case,  on  account  of 
the  brittle  nature  of  the  product,  damage  of  course  can 
be  expected.  We  have  made  test  shipments  to  various 
parts  of  the  world,  having  the  shipments  returned  to  the 
factory  for  inspection  by  our  factory  people,  and  all  of 


444  EXPORT  PACKING 

the  test  shipments  made  were  returned  to  the  factory 
with  practically  no  breakage.  In  addition  to  test  ship- 
ments which  we  have  made  from  time  to  time,  we  have 
checked  up  with  our  clients  the  condition  of  the  shipments 
when  delivered,  and  the  invariable  report  is  that  the  cases 
were  in  good  shape  and  the  contents  without  breakage 
sufficient  to  justify  a  complaint.  While  we  feel  that  our 
packages  at  the  present  time  are  substantial'  in  every 
way,  and  fully  protect  the  ware,  yet  we  are  not  altogether 
satisfied,  and  we  are  constantly  experimenting  with  new 
packages,  and  it  is  our  hope  that  some  time  in  the  future 
we  will  be  able  to  develop  a  package  to  our  own  satisfac- 
tion and  the  satisfaction  of  our  trade,  which  will  be  ideal 
for  a  product  such  as  ours.  As  we  have  a  reputation  to 
maintain,  not  only  at  home,  but  in  the  foreign  fields,  this 
matter  is  given  close  attention  at  all  times,  and  the  super- 
vision at  the  factory  is  very  close,  so  you  will  understand 
that  we  are  in  the  foreign  market  to  stay  and  that  it  will 
be  our  endeavor  at  all  times  to  maintain  the  standards 
already  set,  and  increase  the  efficiency  of  our  packages 
wherever  possible. 

**We  have  tried  various  materials,  such  as  excelsior, 
wheat  and  oat  straw,  but  we  have  found,  in  connection 
with  these  articles,  that  if  the  ware  is  packed  and  allowed 
to  remain  in  stock  for  a  period  of  two  to  three  months, 
the  packing  dries  out  to  such  an  extent  that  it  becomes 
very  brittle,  and  when  shipped  to  the  export  market  the 
natural  action  in  the  shifting  of  the  cargo  causes  the 
packing  materials  to  pulverize  and  fall  to  the  bottom  of 
the  case,  allowing  very  little  protection  for  the  ware. 
This  has  reference  to  our  tumblers,  opal  jars  and  small 
bottle  shipments,  and  to  offset  this  we  decided  that  each 
tumbler  should  be  wrapped  separately  in  heavy  paper, 
the  opal  jars,  where  packed  in  bulk,  to  be  wrapped  three 
to  a  package,  and  that  an  entirely  different  protection  was 
required  for  the  small  flint  bottles.  In  addition  to  wrap- 
ping each  tumbler  separately  and  nesting  where  possible, 
the  rows  are  supported,  as  the  photographs  will  show, 
by  an  insulation  of  refuse  grass  which  is  secured  from 


EXFOBT  PACKING  OF  FRAGILE  GOODS   445 

tlie  carpet  factories  in  the  Northwest,  and  which  is  very 
tough  and  will  not  break  up  as  is  the  case  with  the  straw. 
The  rows  of  opal  jars  as  packed  in  the  case  are  also 
insulated  by  the  insertion  of  the  same  grade  of  material, 
which,  on  account  of  the  thickness  of  this  insulation,  fully 
protects  the  ware  under  normal  transportation  con- 
ditions. 

* '  The  packing  of  the  small  bottles  for  inks,  pomades, 
and  shoe  polishes  was  very  difficult,  and  we  finally  de- 
cided to  test  our  packages,  protecting  the  ware  with  in- 
dented felt  paper  strips  cut  to  the  size  of  the  articles, 
which  strip  is  entwined  around  the  bottle  and  protects  it 
on  all  sides.  The  bottles  are  packed  in  tiers,  and  each 
tier  is  separated  one  from  the  other  by  a  pad  of  indented 
felt  paper,  and  the  cases  lined  throughout  with  the  same 
material. 

**The  packing  of  our  jars  for  jams  and  preserves  was 
also  very  difficult,  and  it  was  found  that  the  use  of  hay 
or  straw  would  not  fully  protect  the  ware,  so  the  felt 
paper  packing  used  identically  the  same  way  as  the  small 
bottle  packages  was  decided  on,  and  we  have  for  the  past 
three  years  been  using  this  type  of  package.  As  the 
photographs  will  show,  all  cases  where  a  cap  is  fitted  to 
the  jar  or  bottle  are  lined  throughout  with  a  waterproof 
paper,  so  as  to  prevent  moisture  getting  to  the  caps  and 
causing  corrosion. 

**You  realize  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  pro- 
cure lumber  at  this  time  to  meet  certain  standards  to 
which  we  endeavor  to  adhere,  and  at  times  we  are  forced 
to  use  an  inferior  grade.  Our  specifications  provide  for 
hardwood  lumber,  and  we  endeavor  to  secure  the  best 
grade  of  this  type  that  the  market  can  produce.  Our 
cases  are  made  up  in  %"  lumber,  heavily  reenforced  at 
the  ends  to  make  the  case  as  rigid  as  possible,  so  as  to 
withstand  hard  knocks.  The  factories  all  use  cement- 
coated  nails,  and  in  addition  to  the  nailing  of  the  cases 
they  are  all  iron-bound,  as  a  further  protection.'* 

A  New  York  export  house,  doing  business  with  South 
Africa,  draws  attention  in  a  letter  to  the  possible  effect 


446  EXPORT  PACKING 

on  a  manufacturer's  export  business  of  the  indifference 
or  ignorance  displayed  in  the  attention  given  to  the  ques- 
tion of  packing  glassware  for  export..  A  South  African 
customer  recently  described  to  this  merchant  his  experi- 
ence in  importing  American  lamp  chimneys.  One  manu- 
facturer simply  packed  the  chimneys  in  straw  or  excel- 
sior, and  the  loss,  through  breakage,  on  every  shipment 
was  considerable.  Another  American  house  was  found 
which  packs  each  chimney  in  a  carton,  and  ships,  care- 
fully packed,  in  cases  of  6  dozen  each,  with  the  result 
that  there  is  scarcely  a  chimney  broken  in  any  shipment 
which  has  been  received.  It  is  not  difficult  to  judge  where 
this  importer's  future  orders  will  be  placed.  South  Afri- 
can importers  Have  also  complained,  according  to  this 
merchant,  of  the  American  packing  of  fruit  jars,  there 
still  being  considerable  loss  from  breakage  in  shipments 
received  from  some  manufacturers. 

Another  New  York  exporter,  doing  business  with  the 
northern  coast  of  South  America,  where  harbor  and  land- 
ing conditions  are  not  of  the  best,  suggests  that  barrels 
or  cases  containing  glassware  should  not  exceed  from  125 
to  150  pounds  each,  in  order  to  facilitate  handling  on  ar- 
rival and  in  inland  transportation,  and  while  the  outside 
containers  must  be  strong,  yet  in  these  countries  they 
must  be  as  light  as  possible  to  avoid  payment  of  excessive 
duties,  and  so  made  that  they  can  be  readily  opened  for 
examination  at  the  custom  houses  without  entailing  un- 
necessary destruction  of  the  cases.  This  exporter  be- 
lieves that  excelsior  is  the  best  material  for  stuffing  or 
interior  packing  because  of  its  lightness  and  elasticity, 
claiming  that  where  cheap  hay  is  used  it  often  mats  to- 
gether and  allows  motion,  with  consequent  breakage  of 
the  contents.  It  is  believed  that  bottles,  if  possible, 
should  be  wrapped  in  porous  paper. 

Another  American  export  house  writes  that  there  has 
been  a  distinct  improvement  in  the  American  packing  of 
glassware,  but  that  there  still  continues  a  considerable 
amount  of  breakage,  especially  when  glassware  is  merely 
packed  in  hay  or  straw  in  casks  or  barrels.     This  ex- 


Caurteny  of  E.  H.  Squibb  d  iSons. 
Packing   op   One-Pound   Glass   Bottles. 
Bottles   are  packed  in  corrugated  partitions  with  a   2"   outside  layer  of  ex- 
celsior and  an  additional  layer  of  excelsior  on  top.     Case  is  lined  with  water- 
proof paper. 


Courtesy  of  E.  R.  Squibb  d  Sons. 
Packing  op  Bottles  Containing  Tablets. 
Case   contains   cartons   of  medicinal   tablets  in   bottles.      The   cartons   on   top 
of   the   case   shmo   corni gated   packing   between   hottles.      Extra  protection  i« 
afforded  by  a  2"  layer  of  excelsior. 

447 


Method  of  Packing 


Courtesy  of  Henry  Heide. 
Hard   Candies. 


Glass  jars  containing  hard  candies  packed  in  two  layers  of  SG  each.  Mats  of 
corrugated  paper  are  laid  on  hottom  and  around  sides  of  case,  between  layers, 
and  on  top  of  case.     Corrugated  partitions  are  used  between  jars. 


OSUSE  rSTE  UCQ  HACtA  ARfllBA 

MUM  DE  CAT.  18 

TINTA 
COMMfERClAL 

Courtesy  of  S.  8.  Stafford,  Inc. 

Method  of  Packing   Writing   Inks, 

Case  at  left  contains  one  dozen  quart  bottles  enclosed  in  cartons  of  corrugated 
board  and  strong  brown  paper.  Corrugated  board  mats  line  sides,  top  and 
bottom.  Case  at  right  contains  four  layers  of  S6  small  bottles  eaeh  separated 
by  corrugated  board.  Top,  bottom,  and  sides  of  case  are  likewise  lined  with 
this  material. 

448 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  FRAGILE  GOODS   449 

porter  advocates  the  use  of  corrugated  paper  as  an  en- 
velope for  bottles,  and  thinks  that  much  thicker  paper 
ought  to  be  employed  than  is  usually  the  case,  and  that 
the  smaller  and  particularly  the  more  expensive  goods 
should  be  carefully  done  up  in  packages,  with  the  num- 
bers and  contents  of  each  written  on  them,  to  facilitate 
identification  and  checking,  as  well  as  assisting  in  pre- 
venting damage. 

Packing  of  Cut  Glass  and  Crockery.— Some  time  be- 
fore the  war  a  German  concern  engaged  in  importing 
American  cut  glass  complained  rather  bitterly  that  al- 
though the  outside  packages,  when  received,  appeared  to 
be  intact,  yet  there  was  a  large  amount  of  breakage  in 
every  shipment,  which  it  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the 
straw  employed  for  the  packing  of  these  goods  was  not 
sufficient  in  amount,  and  was  not  spaced  accurately  all 
around  each  article  and  throughout  the  whole  extent  of 
the  package.  The  casks  and  barrels  seemed  to  be  suf- 
ficiently strong,  but  not  enough  thought  had  been  given 
to  the  effects  on  the  interior  packing  of  the  long  voyage 
and  the  unusual  treatment  which  shipping  cases  have  to 
undergo  when  forwarded  by  rail,  lighter,  steamer,  river 
boat,  etc. 

A  prominent  exporter  of  cut  glass  writes  that  his 
products  are  always  wrapped  individually  in  paper,  each 
wrapper  bearing  a  number  and  description,  to  facilitate 
checking  of  invoices  at  the  other  end.  This  exporter  al- 
ways ships  cut  glass  in  barrels,  believing  there  is  less 
danger  of  breakage  when  forwarded  in  barrels  rather 
than  in  cases.  This  matter  will  be  found  referred  to  in 
the  special  chapter  devoted  to  shipments  of  barreled 
goods.  The  barrels  employed  are  lined  with  waterproof 
paper,  and  the  greatest  care  is  exercised  in  separately 
padding  each  individual  item,  while  packing  all  snugly 
and  tightly. 

In  the  packing  of  chinaware  either  cases  or  barrels 
are  employed — ^barrels  usually,  unless  there  are  a  number 
of  square  or  cartoned  packages  in  the  assortment.  The 
different  pieces  of  chinaware  are  separated  by  layers  of 


450  EXPORT  PACKING 

excelsior  and  placed  on  top  of  a  bed  of  excelsior  in  the 
bottom  of  the  barrel  or  case,  and  a  similar  layer  finishes 
the  top  packing.  If  the  china  has  gilt  decoration  it  is 
first  wrapped  in  paper,  in  order  that  the  decoration  may 
not  be  scratched.  English  shippers  are  said  to  be  very 
particular  in  the  protection  given  to  all  gold  decorations, 
usually  employing  a  fine  grade  of  tissue  paper.  They 
usually  employ  straw  instead  of  excelsior,  and  more  often 
cases  than  barrels,  probably  because  barrels  are  not  quite 
so  common  or  cheap  as  they  are  in  this  country. 

Packing  of  Products  in  Glass  Containers. — Under  this 
heading  there  may  be  considered  a  very  large  class  of 
American  products  of  wide  variety,  ranging  from  per- 
fumery and  toilet  preparations  to  medicines,  drugs,  ink, 
confectionery,  jams,  pickles  and  other  foodstuffs.  All 
commodities  packed  in  glass  containers  should  have  even 
more  attention  devoted  to  their  proper  protection  for 
overseas  shipment  than  would  naturally  be  devoted  to  the 
same  bottles  or  other  containers  if  shipped  empty,  for 
the  reason  that  the  additional  weight  of  the  filled  bottles 
or  jars  introduces  a  further  element  of  risk,  and  further- 
more, these  products  are  usually  intended  for  counter  or 
shelf  display  purposes,  and  hence  they  must  arrive  with 
attractive  exteriors  as  well  as  with  complete,  undamaged 
and  salable  contents.  Furthermore  there  must  be  con- 
sidered, in  the  packing  of  such  commodities,  the  very 
great  danger  of  pilferage,  and  in  that  regard  reference 
should  be  made  to  other  pages  in  this  volume,  in  which 
protection  against  pilfering  is  more  particularly  dealt 
with. 

One  of  the  prominent  American  manufacturers  of 
pharmaceutical  products  allows  the  reproduction  of  ex- 
cellent photographs  (see  page  442)  which  give  a  good  idea 
of  the  export  packing  which  this  manufacturer  supplies. 
In  further  describing  his  packing  he  writes:  *^The  first 
photograph  represents  a  standard  case  of  18  dozen  Hy- 
drogen Peroxide  in  4-ounce  bottles.  As  to  outside  pack- 
ing, this  case  is  made  up  of  Ys"  wood,  reenforced  at  ends 
with  4"  strips,  as  shown  in  the  photograph.    Each  case  is 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  FRAGILE  GOODS   451 

strapped  with  a  wide  metal  strapping,  which  is  nailed 
every  four  inches.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  all  four  sides 
of  the  case  are  made  up  with  the  least  possible  number 
of  boards.  As  to  the  inside  packing,  each  bottle  is  placed 
in  its  individual  carton,  3  dozen  packages  being  placed 
in  a  heavy  carton  packer  with  inner  corrugated  lining 
and  corrugated  partitions,  within  which  each  of  the  in- 
dividual cartons  fits  snugly;  the  entire  arrangement  pre- 
vents movement  of  the  packages,  and  also  should  one  of 
the  bottles  by  any  chance  become  broken  it  is  held  in  place 
by  the  corrugated  partitions,  thus  preventing  the  move- 
ment and  consequent  breaking  up  of  the  balance  of  the 
contents  while  en  route.  Six  cartons  fit  into  the  wooden 
case,  which  is  practically  built  around  them  in  such  a 
snug  fashion  as  to  obviate  necessity  for  straw  or  hay 
packing  in  between  the  sides.  To  take  up  the  slight  space 
which  sometimes  occurs  in  the  top  of  the  case,  sheets  of 
corrugated  carton  are  simply  laid  in  before  the  cover  is 
nailed  on. 

*'The  second  photograph  represents  a  12-ounce  long 
neck,  square  bottle,  and  these,  because  of  their  size,  are 
packed  in  standard  shipping  cases  of  6  dozen  each,  put 
up  in  heavy  corrugated  cartons  of  1  dozen  bottles.  In 
packing  these  we  use  an  individual  straw  jacket  or  sleeve 
for  each  bottle ;  12  fit  snugly  within  the  carton,  which  has 
an  inner  corrugated  liner  for  added  protection,  and  for 
preventing  movement  while  en  route,  the  jacket  acting 
as  a  cushion  between  the  bottles.  A  straw  mat  is  placed 
in  the  bottom  and  on  top  of  bottles  in  each  packer. '* 

Another  well  known  manufacturer  of  pharmaceutical 
products  submits  several  photographs  of  his  export  pack- 
ing, reproduced  on  page  447,  whose  captions  are  self-ex- 
planatory. In  these  photographs  there  are  to  be  noted 
the  corrugated  partitions  dividing  glass  battles,  the  2" 
outside  layer  of  excelsior,  the  lining  of  waterproof  paper, 
or  hermetically  sealed  tin,  etc. 

A  New  York  export  merchant,  in  writing  regarding 
shipments  of  bottled  goods  for  export,  points  out  that 
corrugated  sleeves  or  cartons  can  only  be  successfully 


452-  EXPORT  PACKING 

employed  for  packing  bottles  when  the  bottles  are  not 
so  heavy  that  they  are  likely  to  break  or  flatten  out  the 
cartons.  This  result  not  only  iujures  the  salability  of 
the  goods,  but  allows  the  bottles  very  quickly  to  work 
loose  and  knock  each  other  to  pieces,  and  of  course  as 
soon  as  one  bottle  breaks  all  the  rest  are  in  danger.  This 
exporter  states  that  English  manufacturers  successfully 
used  sawdust  in  packing  small  boxes,  practically  elimin- 
ating breakage. 

One  of  the  complaints  received  regarding  the  ship- 
ment of  American  food  products  in  jars  has  been  that 
the  partitions  used  in  dividing  the  interior  of  cases  into 
pigeon-holes  have  not  been  strong  enough,  or  firmly 
enough  fastened,  and  preferably  should  extend  from  the 
top  to  the  bottom  of  the  box. 

A  well  known  American  manufacturer  of  confection- 
ery supplies  a  photograph  (see  page  448),  explaining  that 
the  cases  illustrated  measure  about  2i^  cubic  feet,  con- 
taining hermetically  sealed  glass  jars  in  two  layers  of  36 
each,  the  case  weighing,  gross,  about  80  pounds.  A  mat 
of  corrugated  paper  is  laid  on  the  bottom  of  the  case, 
around  all  of  the  sides,  and  finally  over  the  top,  and  cor- 
rugated paper  partitions  separate  the  jars  so  that  they 
cannot  rattle  one  against  another,  and  the  two  layers 
of  jars  are  separated  by  mats  of  corrugated  paper.  This 
manufacturer  uses  iron  bands  around  each  end  and 
around  the  middle  of  his  cases.  It  is  suggested,  however, 
that  more  thorough  protection  along  lines  just  above 
indicated  might  conduce  to  safety  in  transit. 

A  manufacturer  of  writing  inks  submits  photographs 
of  his  packing  (see  page  448),  explaining  that  his  quart 
bottles  are  enclosed  in  cartons  made  of  corrugated  board 
and  strong  brown  paper,  sealed  top  and  bottom.  The  case 
itself,  of  strong,  substantial  lumber,  is  lined  with  cor- 
rugated board  mats — top,  bottom  and  sides.  Two  cases, 
each  containing  1  dozen  quarts,  are  strapped  together 
with  strong  iron  strapping,  to  make  a  single  shipping 
package.  The  pint  and  half-pint  sizes  are  similarly 
packed,  only  4  cases  of  each  are  strapped  together  into 


/^'^m 

a)      a)   '•■,«) 

Courtesy  of  The  Carter's  Ink  Co. 

Another*  Method  of  Packing  Fluids. 

Bottles  containing  fluids  or  semi-fluida  separated  by  sheaves  of  excelsior  or 
partitions  of  corrugated  board. 


VOLUME 

OF  OLD  FORM 

OF  PACKING 


S-l7andPS-17     S-19andPS-20  S-21  S-14 

Bulb  Sizes  Bulb  Sizes  Bulb  Size  Bulb  Size 

VOLUME  OF  NEW  FORM  OF  PACKING 


COMPARATIVE  VOLUME  OF  1000  LAMPS  IN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  FORMS  OF  PACKING 

Cmirte»y  of  International  General  Electric  Co. 

Method  op  Reducing  Volume  op  Package. 

This  drawing  shows  graphically  the  saving  effected  by  a  change  in  paclclng 
methods. 


453 


Courtesy  of  International  General  Electric  Co. 
(1)   Methods  of  Packing  Electric  Lamps. 

Tfie  new  bundle,  at  left,  wrapped  in  kraft  paper  presents,  iriih  its  neat,  secure 
compactness,  a  decided  advantage  over  the  old  form  of  string-tied   bundle. 


Courtesy  of  Internationul  Utntral  Electric  Co, 
(2)  New  and  Old  Form  of  Bundles  in  Standard  Box. 

The  paper  bundle  is  better  adapted  to  the  square  package  than  is  the  bundle 
tied  with  string.  Note  the  uniform  distribution  of  excelsior  and  the  elimina- 
tion of  the  wasteful  corners  in  the  improved  method  shown  at  left. 


454 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  FRAGILE  GOODS   455 

a  single  package.  Other  bottles,  square  in  shape,  are 
themselves  quite  strong,  but  are  protected  by  4  walls  of 
corrugated  board.  They  are  packed  in  4  layers  of  bot- 
tles, each  layer  containing  36,  and  layers  are  separated 
by  corrugated  board,  with  which  also  the  entire  case  is 
lined. 

Another  manufacturer  of  inks,  library  paste,  and 
other  office  preparations,  illustrates  his  export  packing 
by  a  photograph,  reproduced  on  page  453,  which  shows 
both  interior  and  exterior  packing  of  glass  bottles  con- 
taining liquids  or  semi-fluids,  having  sheaves  of  excel- 
sior, or  separated  by  partitions  of  corrugated  board.  All 
goods  are  iron  strapped,  and  cement  nails  and  all  pos- 
sible precautions  are  employed. 

Packing  of  Incandescent  Lamps.— The  effort  in  ex- 
port packing  of  incandescent  lamps  has  constantly  been 
directed  toward  the  problem  of  decreasing  bulk  just  as 
far  as  such  might  be  consistent  with  safety.  The  com- 
modity in  this  case  is  extremely  fragile,  and  the  filament 
of  the  lamp  is  in  turn  fragile,  it  being  quite  possible  ta 
have  a  shipment  go  through  without  breaking  the  lamp, 
but  with  a  considerable  number  of  the  filaments  broken. 
The  vital  necessity  for  a  proper  package  was  thus 
quickly  recognized,  and  one  of  the  large  makers  of  lamps 
lias  spent  thousands  of  dollars  in  experimental  work  at 
the  Forest  Products  Laboratory,  at  Madison,  Wisconsin, 
and  in  its  own  laboratory,  for  the  purpose  of  discovering 
the  proper  package. 

The  European  practice  differs  considerably  from  the 
American,  for  the  custom  abroad  has  been  to  ship  in  large 
quantities  in  one  container,  whereas  the  American  system 
makes  a  practice  of  shipping  in  small  packages  which  are 
then  enclosed  in  a  large  case.  Indeed,  the  American 
package  does  not  differ  for  domestic  or  foreign  ship- 
ments, except  to  the  extent  that  in  foreign  shipments  the 
cartons  are  enclosed  in  cases,  and  we  understand  that 
foreign  shipments  have  recently  also  been  made  in  car- 
tons. A  large  manufacturer  and  shipper  of  incandescent 
lamps,  to  whom  the  author  is  indebted  for  the  cuts  shown 


456  EXPORT  PACKING 

with  this  article,  sends  the  following  information :  *  *  The 
best  method  of  packing  lamps  for  export  shipment  is,  and 
has  ever  been,  a  very  live  subject  with  our  engineers. 
Next  to  having  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  product  to  ex- 
port, the  most  important  consideration  in  foreign  busi- 
ness is  properly  packing  the  product.  Consequently  this 
is  a  subject  to  which  we  are  giving  constant  and  careful 
thought,  with  a  corps  of  experts  devoting  their  entire 
time  to  this  one  problem,  and  conducting  hundreds  of 
tests  and  experiments  in  their  effort  to  discover  and 
adopt  the  very  best  methods. 

**  There  are  many  factors  entering  into  this  problem, 
but  generally  speaking  the  two  most  important  ones  are : 
(1)  Prevention  of  breakage.  (2)  Reducing  size  of  pack- 
age to  the  lowest  possible  minimum. 

**  Heretofore  we  have  wrapped  our  lamps  in  what  was 
kno^vn  as  a  *  Champion'  wrapper,  consisting  of  a  flat  sheet 
of  single-faced  corrugated  paper  to  which  was  glued  a 
fly-sheet  of  manila  paper,  slightly  wider  and  longer  than 
the  corrugated  paper  sheet.  The  lamps  were  rolled  up 
in  this  wrapper,  the  manila  fly-sheet  tucked  in  at  the  ends, 
and  the  so-called  *  bread  and  butter'  sizes  of  lamps — 
60  watt  and  smaller — were  then  tied  in  bundles  of  25  with 
a  piece  of  string.  The  standard  method  was  then  to 
place  four  of  these  bundles,  or  100  lamps,  in  a  corrugated 
paper  package  (although  wooden  boxes  were  used  when 
necessary).  A  different  size  of  corrugated  paper  pack- 
age was  used  for  practically  every  different  size  lamp. 

**  These  facts  are  more  or  less  familiar  to  every  one 
who  may  read  this  article,  but  for  purpose  of  comparison 
with  the  new  method,  it  is  well  that  they  be  mentioned 
here. 

*' While  this  method  of  packing  gave  the  lamps  very 
good  protection,  there  were  certain  features  about  it  that 
were  not  the  best,  everything  considered.    For  example : 

*^(1)  The  so-called  'Champion'  wrapper  was  bulky, 
heavy,  relatively  expensive,  and  did  not  permit  the  lamps 
to  nest.  The  last  mentioned  objection  necessitated  a  rel- 
atively large  package. 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  FRAGILE  GOODS   457 

'^(2)  The  tying  of  lamps  in  bundles  with  string  was 
insecure.  In  removing  the  bundles  from  the  package  the 
string  frequently  came  off,  causing  inconvenience,  and 
possibly  some  breakage. 

' '  (3)  The  bundles  of  lamps  being  round,  did  not  prop- 
erly fit  the  packages,  which  were  square.  This  meant  a 
great  waste  of  space  at  the  corners  of  the  package. 

^^  (4)  The  use  of  the  many  sizes  of  packages  had  ob- 
vious disadvantages. 

' '  To  discover  a  more  satisfactory  method  of  packing 
than  that  described  above,  eliminating  the  disadvantages 
of  that  method  without  sacrificing  the  protection  to  the 
lamp,  has  been  our  object,  and  with  this  end  in  view  hun- 
dreds of  tests  have  been  conducted.  We  have  been  suc- 
cessful in  developing  a  method  that  we  consider  vastly 
superior  to  the  previous  standard.  Briefly,  the  new 
method  is: 

*'(!)  The  lamp  is  wrapped  in  what  is  known  as  a 
*Mid-ge'  wrapper,  consisting  of  a  sheet  of  flat  unfaced 
corinigated  paper  to  which  is  attached  a  fly-sheet  of  Kraft 
tissue  paper.  Both  the  corrugated  and  fly-sheets  are 
practically  the  same  size  as  those  in  the  'Champion* 
wrapper,  but  in  the  *Mid-ge*  wrapper  (a)  They  are 
lighter  in  weight;  (b)  The  new  wrapper  permits  the 
lamps  to  nest,  economizing  space;  (c)  It  is  less  expensive 
than  the  'Champion.' 

*'(2)  The  ends  of  the  'Mid-ge'  wrapper,  being  of 
Kraft  tissue,  are  twisted,  giving  decidedly  more  protec- 
tion to  the  tips  of  the  lamps  than  the  'Champion'  wrap- 
per, whose  fly-sheet  was  manila  and  could  not  be  twisted, 
but  had  to  be  tucked  in. 

"(3)  The  lamps,  after  being  placed  in  the  'Mid-ge' 
wrapper,  instead  of  being  tied  in  bundles  with  string,  are 
wrapped  in  Kraft  paper,  of  which  the  ends  are  held 
together  by  gummed  paper  tape,  giving  a  neat,  compact, 
secure  bundle,  conforming  in  shape  with  the  box.  Fig.  1 
illustrates  very  clearly  the  difference  in  general  appear- 
ance and  shape  of  the  bundles  of  lamps  in  the  Kraft 
paper  and  tied  with  a  string.    Fig.  2  shows  how  decidedly 


458  EXPORT  PACKING 

better  the  paper  bundle  is  adapted  to  the  square  paper 
package  than  the  bundle  tied  with  string,  permitting  a 
uniform  distribution  of  excelsior  and  eliminating  the 
wasteful  corners.    See  page  454. 

'^(4)  The  ^Mid-ge'  wrapper  permits  the  lamps  to 
nest,  as  they  naturally  should.  The  advantage  of  this 
from  a  shipping  standpoint  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that 
30  S-19  bulb  lamps  in  '  Mid-ge '  wrappers  can  be  packed  in 
the  same  space  as  25  in  *  Champion'  wrappers.  Table  No. 
1  shows  some  interesting  comparisons  of  sizes  of  pack- 
ages required  for  the  ^Mid-ge'  and  for  the  'Champion' 
wrappers,  with  the  saving  in  space  effected  with  the 
former. 

*^  (5)  By  some  changes  in  standard  package  quantities 
we  have  been  able  to  reduce  to  a  very  low  minimum  the 
number  of  sizes  of  standard  paper  packages  that  will  be 
used.  Hereafter  we  will  pack  S-14,  S-17,  S-19,  S-21,  PS-17 
and  PS-20  bulb  lamps  (possibly  other  sizes)  in  the  same 
size  package.  There  will  be  other  similar  consolidation  of 
sizes.  This  has  the  following  distinct  advantages:  (a) 
A  reduction  in  weight  and  volume  per  thousand  packed 
lamps,  and  a  consequent  saving  in  transportation  charges 
and,  in  some  cases,  in  duty  charges,  (b)  A  more  flexible 
general  warehouse  stock,  from  a  storage  and  a  shipping 
standpoint,  (c)  The  bundles  of  lamps  will  all  be  of  prac- 
tically the  same  size,  which  means  that  shipments  of  less 
than  standard  package  quantities  from  agents'  and  sub- 
companies'  stocks,  can  be  quickly  and  efficiently  packed 
and  handled  by  placing  the  compact  paper  bundles  of 
several  different  sizes  of  lamps  in  the  one  size  standard 
package  designed  especially  to  fit  the  lot.  This  is  an 
obvious  advantage,  (d)  Where  crating  is  necessary,  but 
one  size  of  crate  will  be  required.  The  table  No.  1  con- 
tains some  very  interesting  figures  on  the  saving  in 
volume  per  thousand  packed  lamps  effected  by  this  con- 
solidation of  package  sizes  into  one  standard  size. 

* '  This  saving  in  volume  is  shown  in  the  drawing  here- 
with (page  453).  The  new  wrappers  and  paper  pack- 
ages will  retain  their  same  advertising  value  and  will  be 


Courtesy  of  Willard  Storage  Battery  Co. 
First  Process  in  Packing  Storage  Batteries. 

Batteries  are  first  placed  in  a   light  frame  holding  an  average  of  five.     For 
detailed  description  of  the  packing,  see  text. 


Courtesy  of  Willard  Storage  Battery  Co. 
Shipping  Case  for  Storage  Batteries. 
The  crate  is  placed  in  the  shipping  case  and  floated  in  excelsior. 

459 


Court*  f<)i  of  Wilhtrd  Sfoi^ttjr   llnltirji  Co. 

Anotiieu  Method  uf   L'acking  Batteries. 

Batteries  packed  according   to   speciflcationa   of  the    United  Stated  War  De- 
partment.    Each  battery  placed  in  separate  compartment  and  floated  in  excelsior. 


Courtesy  of  National  X-Ray  Reflector  Co. 

Method  of  Packing   Glass   Reflectors. 

Reflectors  are  packed  in  standard  cardboard  cartons,  each  reflector  contained 
in  its  own  compartment.  Excelsior  is  packed  into  each  compartment ,  and  the 
cartons  are  floated  in  excelsior  when  put  in  case. 

460 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  FRAGILE  GOODS   461 

marked  with  a  description  of  the  lamps  as  in  the  past. 
'*In  closing,  it  might  be  of  interest  to  state  that  our 
engineers  were  fortunate  enough  to  get  the  permission 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the  United  States 
Government,  to  conduct  many  of  their  tests  in  a  special 
box  testing  machine  in  its  Forest  Products  Laboratory. 
These  and  many  actual  shipping  tests  have  demonstrated 
conclusively  the  superiority  of  the  *Mid-ge'  wrapper 
method  of  packing  from  a  standpoint  of  protection  to  the 
lampa.  Other  advantages  we  have  attempted  to  point 
out  in  thi-s  article.'* 

SAVING  IN  VOLUME  BY  NEW  PACKING  METHOD.     TABLE  NO.  1. 


Old  Method  (Champion  Wrapper) 


Nbw  Method  (Mid-ge  Wrapper) 


Per  Cent 

Standard 

Outside 

Volume 

Standard 

Outside 

Volume 

Reduction 

Bulb 

Package 

Dimensions 

per  1000 

Package 

Dimensions 

per  1000 
Lamps 

in  Volume 

Size 

Quantity 

Standard 

Lamps 

Quantity 

Standard 

New  over 

Package 

Package 

Old 

S-H 

100 

14     xl4     x23 

26.09  cu.ft. 

250 

I7y2  xl7Hx27 

19.14  cu.ft. 

26.6  ' 

S-17 

100 

161^x16^x24 

36.68  cu.ft. 

144 

17J^xl7Hx27 

33.22  cu.ft. 

9.43 

S-19 

100 

17Hxl7»/ix27 

47.85  cu.ft. 

120 

17Hxl7>ijx27 

29.87  cu.ft. 

16.6 

S-21 

100 

18HxlSHx31 

61.39  cu.ft. 

100 

17^x17^x27 

47.85  cu.ft. 

22.0 

PS-17 

100 

16>ixl6Jix24 

36.68  cu.ft. 

144 

17>^xl7Hx27 

33.22  cu.ft. 

9.43 

South  American  importers  have  reported  that  Euro- 
pean manufacturers  of  electric  lamps  have  usually 
packed  in  excelsior  or  straw,  and  have  added  pads  of 
burlap  on  the  exterior  covers,  with  the  intention  of  thus 
reducing  the  effect  of  shocks.  This  method  of  packing, 
however,  is  said  to  be  gradually  giving  way  to  an  imita- 
tion of  the  more  modern  American  packing  of  lamps. 

The  specifications  for  packing  of  the  General  Engi- 
neer Depot  of  the  United  States  Army  include  the  fol- 
lowing: ''Incandescent  lamp  bulbs  or  lamp  and  lantern 
globes  will  be  shipped  in  boxes  of  not  over  25  cubic  feet, 
all  dimensions  approximately  the  same.  Two  inches  of 
excelsior  will  separate  the  contents  from  the  inside  of  the 
boxing;  a  flat  double-faced  corrugated  board  will  sepa- 
rate layers.  Incandescent  lamps  will  be  cased  in  corru- 
gated paper  cylinders,  and  placed  carefully  so  as  to  com- 
fortably  fill  the   layer;   excelsior  will  be  used   where 


462        ,  EXPORT  PACKING 

necessary  for  firm  packing.  Alternatively,  well  packed 
cartons  will  be  boxed,  and  a  space  of  two  inches  clear 
between  cartons  and  box  will  be  filled  with  excelsior  or 
similar  material.  The  excelsior  will  be  in  a  compact  and 
even  bed,  with  no  lumps. '  ^ 

Packing  of  Sundry  Electrical  Supplies.— Export  pack- 
ing of  the  electric  storage  battery,  of  the  rubber  cell  type, 
presents  an  interesting  problem,  for  we  have  here  a  com- 
modity that  is  fairly  fragile  and  at  the  same  time  com- 
paratively heavy.  The  need,  therefore,  is  for  most  care- 
ful protection  against  breakage  and  also  for  cases  of 
sturdy  construction  that  will  guarantee  safety  to  the  con- 
tents under  rough  handling. 

A  house  that  has  developed  an  excellent  export  trade 
sends  the  photographs  shown  on  pages  459  and  460  and 
comments  on  them  as  follows:  *'In  photograph  *A'  you 
will  find  that  the  batteries  are  placed  in  a  light  frame 
holding  on  the  average  five  batteries.  You  will  note  on 
the  photograph  that  the  batteries  are  separated  from 
each  other  with  corrugated  paraffined  cardboard,  so  as 
to  minimize  the  jarring  as  much  as  possible.  The  card- 
board is  also  put  lengthwise  in  the  crate,  as  you  can  see 
one  in  the  photograph  tilted  up,  purposely  projecting. 
The  next  crate  in  the  same  photograph  shows  the  bat- 
teries placed  in  the  crate  with  the  cardboard  tucked 
snugly  around.  The  third  crate  shows  two  sheets  of 
tough  waterproof  paper  laid  on  top  of  the  batteries,  and 
as  the  fourth  crate  shows,  a  quantity  of  excelsior  is 
placed  on  top  and  nailed  down  securely;  thus  you  can 
see  the  batteries  are  firmly  held  in  the  crate,  being  in 
addition  protected  by  the  excelsior  from  rough  handling. 
You  will  note  on  this  picture  that  the  crate  has  side 
boards  extending  a  few  inches,  which  serve  as  handles. 
The  object  of  this  you  can  see  on  referring  to  the  second 
illustration  *B,'  which  shows  the  actual  shipping  case 
made  of  %"  lumber.  The  handles  on  the  crate  serve  for 
the  packers  to  lift  the  crate  with  the  batteries  and  place 
it  in  the  packing  case,  on  the  bottom  of  which  a  quantity 
of  excelsior  has  been  placed ;  then  the  handles  are  sawed 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  FRAGILE  GOODS   463 

off  and  excelsior  is  packed  around  with  a  paddle,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration  where  the  man  is  just  in  the  act 
of  forcing  this  excelsior  in  between  the  sides  of  the  case 
and  the  crate.  After  the  excelsior  has  been  well  packed 
around,  a  quantity  is  put  on  top  of  the  crate  and  the^ 
cover  boards  nailed  down,  after  which  the  steel  bands  are 
fastened  and  the  marking  stenciled.  ^We  allow  a  space  of 
about  21/2  to  3  inches  for  the  packing  of  the  excelsior. 

**As  we  have  received  many  favorable  comments  on 
this  manner  of  packing',  which  has  been  adopted  after 
many  experiments  and  variations  in  our  methods,  we  feel 
that  this  is  the  most  satisfactory  way  of  shipping  bat- 
teries abroad. 

^'The  third  photograph  (page  460)  might  prove  of 
interest  also,  as  it  shows  the  packing  of  batteries  shipped 
under  government  specifications  during  the  war.  You 
can  see  from  this  picture  that  each  battery  is  put  into 
a  separate  compartment,  there  being  ample  room  allowed 
for  the  packing  of  excelsior.  These  cases  were  made  of 
1"  lumber,  reenforced  with  steel  bands,  and  then  painted 
across  the  corners  in  certain  colors  so  that  this  would 
automatically  determine  for  what  branch  of  the  army 
they  were  intended.  The  photograph  shows  these  bat- 
teries ready  for  shipment." 

An  American  export  house  writes  that  one  of  its  cus- 
tomers has  complained  of  an  instance  where  a  manufac- 
turer shipped  battery  charges  and  storage  battery  plates 
in  one  case,  divided  by  a  partition  which  was  supposed  to 
be  solid,  but  which  became  loosened,  and  in  consequence 
some  of  the  charges  were  broken.  This  customer  believed 
that  the  two  kinds  of  articles  should  have  been  packed 
separately.  This  exporter  also  directs  attention  to  the 
necessity  of  always  carefully  insulating  all  electrical 
devices  made  of  porcelain  with  some  sort  of  a  cushion 
between  the  individual  pieces  which  are  quite  fragile. 

An  official  report  recently  received  from  Cuba 
declares  that  it  is  bad  policy  to  ship  elaborate  glass 
chandeliers  demounted,  or  in  any  respect  knocked  down, 
because  the  lower  expense  involved  in  freight  rates  is 


464  EXPORT  PACKING 

more  than  offset  by  the  cost  of  erecting,  because  Cuban 
dealers  are  not  equipped  to  produce  fine  results  in  com- 
plicated work  of  this  description.  Some  simple  chande- 
liers and  fixtures  may  be  shipped  knocked  down,  when  it 
is  possible  to  assemble  them  easily  in  local  Cuban  estab- 
lishments. From  China  a  complaint  was  recently  received 
regarding  a  shipment  of  glassware  for  electrical  fixtures 
sent  out  in  cases  made  of  %"  lumber,  with  ends  of  %" 
stuff.  Not  only  were  the  cases  too  light,  but  the  lumber 
was  of  bad  quality,  and  almost  all  of  them  arrived  in 
broken  condition.  Indirect  lighting  bowls  are  often 
shipped  three  to  a  barrel,  and  although  barrels  arrived 
without  apparent  external  damage,  the  contents  are  fre- 
quently broken,  and  importers  believe  it  would  be  much 
safer  to  ship  each  bowl  separately  packed  in  a  suitable 
case,  with  plenty  of  excelsior. 

A  well-known  manufacturer  sends  photographs  shown 
on  pages  460  and  465,  and  writes:  **We  are  sending 
you  with  this  letter  two  photographs  showing  the 
methods  of  packing  that  we  employ  in  our  factory  for 
export  shipments.  This  particular  shipment  is  one  that 
is  going  to  London,  and  consists  of  glass  reflectors  used 
for  illumination  of  store  windows  and  interiors  by  means 
of  indirect  illumination.  One  photograph,  as  you  will 
note  (page  465),  shows  five  boxes  all  ready  for  shipment, 
with  markings;  the  other  photograph  (page  460)  shows 
box  partly  packed.  You  will  note  that  the  wooden  box 
contains  smaller  cardboard  cartons  which  are  nested  in 
excelsior.  The  method  of  packing  the  individual  paste- 
board cal-ton  is  illustrated  in  the  low^er  left  hand  corner 
of  the  photograph.  In  this  particular  case  the  cardboard 
carton  has  four  compartments,  in  which  the  individual 
reflectors  are  nested,  between  the  cardboard  partitions 
and  layers.  We  believe  that  the  photographs,  with  the 
following  descriptive  notes,  will  be  of  service : 

**As  stated  above,  the  individual  reflectors  are  packed 
in  standard  cardboard  cartons,  with  partitions  and  com- 
partments that  hold  the  separate  reflectors  apart.  This 
cardboard  carton  is  the  same  as  used  for  domestic  ship- 


Courtesy  of  National  X-Ray  Reflector  Co. 
Cases  Containing  Glass  Reflectors. 
Note  the  strips  on  ends  and  middle  of  sides  which  tend  to  take  jar  occasioned 
by  rolling  or  tipping  of  cases.     For  detailed  description  see  text. 


Courtesy  of  Eastman  Kodak  Co. 

Packing  of  Photographic  Goods. 

Note  the  double  ends  of  cases.  The  material  packed  is  separated  from  the 
walls  of  the  case,  and  each  piece  from  every  other  piece,  by  thick  layers  of 
excelsior.     This  case  contains  glass  graduates. 

465 


Courtesy  of  Eastman   Kodak  Co. 
Soldering  a  Tin  Lining  for  Case. 
The  tin  lining  provides  an  hermetically  sealed  package. 


Courtesy  of  Oeo.  Borgfeldt  <fc  Co. 
Packing  of  Brio-a-Brac. 

Each  article  packed  individually  in  paper  and  excelsior,  placed  in  case  in  even 
layers,  each  layer  covered  by  layer  of  excelsior.  Note  double  ends  of  case  reen- 
forced  by  strip  of  lumber  at  ea^h  end. 

466 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  FRAGILE  GOODS    467 

ping.  In  order  to  further  insure  the  reflector  against 
chipping  or  abrasion,  any  spaces  between  the  partitions 
and  the  reflector  are  filled  up  with  excelsior,  so  that  the 
reflector  cannot  move  or  shift  in  its  position.  This 
excelsior  packing  is  not  used  in  domestic  transportation. 

*'The  large  export  boxes  are  made  of  1"  lumber, 
reenforced  by  1"  lumber  on  ends,  and  bound  in  the  middle 
with  1"  strips;  so  that  when  the  box  is  rolled  or  tipped 
over,  these  strips  will  tend  to  take  the  jar,  instead  of 
allowing  the  box  to  receive  a  flat  slam,  which  is  more  or 
less  injurious  to  the  contents.  You  will  note  in  the  photo- 
graph that  the  wooden  boxes  are  bound  with  heavy  strap 
iron  at  each  end.  The  wooden  box  is  large  enough  to  allow 
the  standard  cartons  to  be  floated  in  excelsior  padding. 
The  boxes  are  made  about  4"  larger  in  each  dimension 
than  the  actual  dimensions  of  all  of  the  cartons  assem- 
bled. This  space  is  very  solidly  filled  with  excelsior.  It 
is  our  aim,  in  making  shipments  of  this  kind,  to  keep  the 
size  of  the  wooden  boxes  from  becoming  too  large  and 
heavy  for  convenient  handling.  We  aim  to  keep  to  a 
dimension  of  not  over  56"  for  any  side  of  the  box,  and  a 
weight  of  about  500  pounds. 

**The  particular  style  of  packing  described  and  illus- 
trated by  the  photographs  has  been  used  successfully  for 
shipments  going  to  Holland,  Sweden,  England,  Japan, 
Australia,  etc. 

**As  you  already  know,  the  outside  of  the  boxes  must 
be  plainly  marked  to  indicate  the  contents,  especially  if 
it  is  of  fragile  nature.  It  is  our  practice  to  place  mark- 
ings not  only  in  English,  but  also  in  the  language  of  the 
country  to  which  the  shipment  is  to  be  made,  such  as 
Swedish,  Dutch,  Japanese,  etc.  The  address  or  destina- 
tion is  always  given  in  the  foreign  language  as  well  as  in 
the  American.  This  we  consider  a  very  important  point. 
We  feel  that  it  is  better  to  have  more  information  than 
is  required  rather  than  hold  up  the  shipment,  which,  in 
any  case,  requires  a  great  deal  of  time.*' 

A  large  maker  of  incandescent  mantles,  in  a  state- 
ment regarding  his  export  packing,  says  that  upright 


468  EXPORT  PACKING 

mantles  are  first  packed  in  cardboard  tubes,  then  in 
cartons  containing  either  12  or  25,  according  to  the 
requirements  of  the  market  to  which  they  are  being 
shipped.  Cartons  are  packed  with  a  liberal  supply  of 
excelsior  completely  surrounding  them,  in  heavy  cases 
lined  with  waterproof  paper,  and  all  cases  are  carefully 
strapped  and  cleated. 

Packing  of  Photographic  Plates  and  Glassware.— 
What  is  probably  the  largest  American  concern  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  photographic  cameras  and  sup- 
plies, declares  that  it  takes  the  greatest  possible  care  at 
all  times  to  ensure  that  its  export  packages  shall  be 
durable,  and  suitable  for  the  transportation  requirements 
of  the  countries  to  which  they  are  shipped.  Cases  are 
usually  of  y^"  lumber,  tin-lined,  and  hermetically  sealed 
throughout  (see  cuts  pages  465,  466).  Heavy  strapping 
surrounds  the  cases,  and  is  always  sealed.  Wherever 
feasible,  a  standard  case  of  from  12  to  16  cubic  feet 
capacity  is  used.  The  lumber  for  this  is  mitred  and 
nailed  with  special  rosin  nails.  For  the  coast  ports  of 
Venezuela,  cases  of  smaller  and  lighter  construction 
(from  6  to  7  cubic  feet)  are  used,  in  order  to  facilitate 
handling,  and  of  course  where  muleback  transportation 
is  to  be  considered,  as  in  Colombia,  cases  are  made  not 
to  exceed  150  pounds  in  weight.  Where  there  is  liability 
of  breakage,  the  material  in  cases  is  separated  from  the 
walls,  and  each  piece  from  every  other  piece,  by  thick 
layers  of  excelsior.  Furthermore,  cases  containing  pho- 
tographic plates  and  chemicals  in  glass  are  limited  in 
size  to  about  3i/2  cubic  feet,  so  that  when  sealed  they  will 
not  weigh  more  than  from  200  to  300  pounds. 

The  specifications  for  packing  issued  by  the  General 
Engineer  Depot  of  the  United  States  Army  included  the 
following  paragraph,  which  should  be  noted  in  this  con- 
nection: **  Cameras  and  photographic  supplies  requiring 
such  treatment  should  be  hermetically  sealed,  either  in 
an  asphalt-treated  cotton  fabric — where  necessary, 
asphalt  or  pitch  sealed,  lapping  at  least  six  inches — or  in 
a  waterproofed  container  approved  by  the  Depot,  taped 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  FRAGILE  GOODS   469 

over  the  joints,  and  with  a  coat  of  China  wood  oil  over 
these." 

Export  Packing  of  Bric-a-brac  and  Fragile  Sundries. 
— A  large  New  York  exporter,  handling  a  great  variety 
of  bric-a-brac,  and  all  kinds  of  fragile  goods,  provides 
us  with  a  number  of  interesting  photographs  (see  pages 
466,  556,  585),  and  states  that  export  packing  consists 
mainly  in  finding  suitable  cases,  strong  enough  and 
roomy  enough  to  contain  the  materials,  snugly  and  tightly 
packed.  All  cases,  except  those  to  contain  chinaware, 
ire  lined  with  waterproof  paper,  and  each  item  is 
separately  padded.  The  case  itself  is  floored  with  ex- 
celsior, and  the  items  are  placed  in  and  very  tightly 
packed  between  layers  of  excelsior.  The  cases  are  reen- 
forced  inside  with  a  long  piece  of  lumber  nailed  very 
tightly,  so  as  to  prevent  the  case  collapsing  in  case  a 
heavy  load  is  placed  on  top  of  it.  Cases  are  iron- 
strapped,  pulled  tight  by  machine  and  sealed.  End 
straps  are  nailed  into  the  case,  but  straps  about  the 
middle  of  a  case  are  merely  pulled  very  tight,  and 
not  nailed.  All  bric-a-brac  is  packed  individually  with 
paper  and  excelsior,  laid  in  the  cases  in  even  layers, 
and  thoroughly  protected  all  around  by  excelsior.  Each 
piece  of  bisque  bric-a-brac  is  padded  carefully  to  fill  in 
the  spaces  between  the  parts  of  the  ornament,  wrapped 
in  excelsior  and  paper,  and  large  pieces  are  padded  in 
layers.  Bronze  pieces  of  bric-a-brac  are  also  padded, 
usually  by  bands  of  excelsior-wrapped  paper.  Cases  em- 
ployed by  this  manufacturer  frequently  have  double  ends, 
and  are  also  often  reenforced  by  wooden  battens  at  the 
ends.  In  a  general  way,  the  packing  of  these  fragile 
articles  of  bric-a-brac  may  be  described  as  thorough 
** floating*'  of  the  goods  in  their  outside  containers. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
EXPORT  PACKING  OF  TEXTILES  AND  APPAREL 

JOHN  S.  LAWRENCE  recently  stated  that,  ^^Four 
and  a  half  years  ago  we  studied  our  Federal  tariffs 
and  probable  imports,  today  we  look  to  our  foreign 
markets  and  probable  exports  in  anticipating  our  in- 
dustrial conditions.  ******  rpj^^  responsibility 
of  caring  for  the  world's  needs  has  come  to  us  through 
the  misfortune  of  others,  and  with  it  we  have  undertaken 
a  new  obligation.  The  permanency  of  this  business  will 
depend  upon  the  degree  of  'sane,  sound  service'  rendered 
by  our  United  States  industry  in  the  next  few  years." 
The  author  does  not  know  that  it  has  ever  been  his  good 
fortune  to  see  expressed  more  concretely  the  intenia- 
tional  situation  of  any  industrial  branch. 

From  1890  to  1914  the  United  States  consumed  31  to 
38  per  cent  of  its  own  cotton  crop,  but  the  statistics  for 
the  war  years  show  a  very  rapid  increase  of  demand  at 
home  for  the  approximately  12,000,000  bales  produced  in 
the  United  States.  In  1915-1916  we  used  53  per  cent  of 
the  domestic  crop;  in  1916-1917,  54  per  cent;  in  1917- 
1918,  58  per  cent.  This  means  that  British  spindles  are 
being  robbed  of  the  raw  material  that  has  given  England 
the  lead  in  world  trade  for  so  many  years,  and  it  also  ex- 
plains the  very  determined  efforts  that  Great  Britain  is 
now  making  to  foster  cotton  growing  within  her  own 
domains  and  thus  make  herself  independent  of  foreign 
countries  in  the  matter  of  raw  cotton  supplies. 

The  foregoing  paragraphs  will  be  of  interest  to  any 
man  interested  in  foreign  trade  in  textiles,  but  it  all  has 
reference  to  the  past  and  will  be  meaningless  for  the 
future  unless  the  proper  work  is  done  to  hold  the  ground 
won  and  by  ''sane,  sound  service '*  make  a  good  fight 

470 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  TEXTILES         471 

for  world  markets.  As  an  absolutely  necessary  element 
of  this  good  service  must  be  included  good  packing,  and 
as  a  necessary  element  the  packing  problem  demands  the 
most  careful  and  painstaking  study. 

Packing  of  Textiles.— The  packing  of  textiles  offers  a 
large  variety  of  interesting  technical  angles.  There  is 
the  question  of  customs  requirements,  which  as  applying 
to  textiles  are  of  the  most  exacting  character.  The  ar- 
rangement of  the  goods  in  the  case  and  the  character  of 
the  case  has  a  most  important  influence  on  the  laid-down 
cost  of  the  goods.  There  is  further  the  protection  of  the 
goods,  and  above  all,  the  necessity  of  doing  everything 
possible  to  prevent  pilfering.  Textiles,  unlike  a  great 
many  goods,  are  merchandise  of  instant  use  in  any  coun- 
try, and  there  are  comparatively  few  other  lines  that 
offer  the  universal  and  constant  attraction  to  the  pilferer. 

Textiles  is,  of  course,  a  generally  comprehensive  term 
and  applies  not  only  to  cotton  piece  goods  but  to  silk, 
woolen  and  other  goods  in  the  piece,  of  which  in  recent 
years  the  United  States  has  come  to  rank  as  an  important 
exporter.  It  seems  probably  true  that  English  shippers 
have  brought  to  bear  on  the  question  of  the  export  pack- 
ing of  textiles  a  good  deal  more  thorough  and  scientific 
study  than  we  in  the  United  States  have  up  to  the  present 
bestowed  on  this  subject.  Indeed,  the  export  packing  of 
cotton  textiles  is,  it  is  understood,  a  distinct  branch  of 
industry  in  Manchester,  in  which  are  engaged  specialists 
devoting  their  attention  to  nothing  else  than  the  packing 
for  export  of  the  tremendous  volume  of  export  business 
enjoyed  by  Manchester  and  other  British  firms  of  ex- 
porters. Market  peculiarities  are  quite  thoroughly 
studied  and  generally  understood,  and  the  packing  of  tex- 
tiles by  these  Manchester  specialists  is  said  to  follow 
more  or  less  standardized  lines — in  the  making  of  bales, 
for  example.  In  many  instances,  double  if  not  treble  the 
hydraulic  pressure  is  brought  to  bear  in  compressing  the 
contents  than  is  employed  by  American  shippers,  with  the 
result  that  bales  are  made  to  occupy  not  to  exceed  two- 
thirds  of  the  cubic  space  of  an  American  bale  containing 


472  EXPORT  PACKING 

similar  yardage.  This  perhaps  is  especially  true  in  ship- 
ments of  certain  varieties  of  cotton  piece  goods  to  British 
India,  where  long  established  custom  has  developed  the 
practice  of  compressing  the  several  pieces  into  bales 
while  still  damp,  and  even  soaked,  with  the  sizing  liquids 
employed,  utilizing  very  heavy  hydraulic  pressure,  with 
the  result  that  when  the  bales  are  opened  in  India  each 
piece  is  as  stiff  as  a  board  and  the  folds  of  the  cloth  have 
almost  to  be  torn  in  unwrapping  the  pieces.  Practices 
such  as  this  vary  with  different  markets  and,  of  course, 
have  to  be  learned  with  the  course  of  long  and  intimate 
acquaintance  with  market  peculiarities  and  the  wishes  of 
customers.  It  is  notable,  however,  that  British  packers 
invariably  charge  for  the  special  packing  supplied,  while 
the  usual  practice  of  most  American  shippers  is  to  supply 
packing  without  cost.  There  is,  or  at  least  used  to  be 
before  the  war,  a  more  or  less  standard  packing  price-list 
in  vogue  among  the  Manchester  packing  houses,  and 
charges  for  packing  of  various  descriptions — bales,  cases, 
tin  linings,  etc. — as  made  by  British  shippers  were  widely 
understood  and  accepted.  Whether  it  might  be  better 
for  American  shippers  to  go  deeply  into  this  subject  of 
the  export  packing  of  textiles  and  impose  charges  for 
packing  which  would  deliver  goods  to  the  better  satisfac- 
tion of  customers,  or  with  considerably  reduced  freight 
charges,  may  be  a  subject  for  discussion.  The  volume  of 
American  export  business  has  become  so  tremendous 
that  economies  offered  customers  for  their  better  satis- 
faction in  one  way  or  another  have  become  matters  of 
the  highest  importance  to  us. 

Use  of  Cases  and  Bales. — As  illustrating  American 
packing  methods  at  present  in  vogue  among  shippers 
doing  a  very  large  export  business,  the  following  quota- 
tions from  correspondence  which  has  been  received  will 
be  of  value. 

A  house  doing  an  international  business  writes: 
**  Cases. — For  countries  where  case  packing  is  permis- 
sible, we  use  %-inch  new  cases,  line  these  inside  with 
good  heavy  paper  and  protect  the  outside  by  iron  strap- 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  TEXTILES         473 

ping.  The  number  of  straps  varies  according  to  the  size 
and  weight  of  cases,  but  it  is  hardly  ever  less  than  three* 
To  ports  in  which  unloading  is  difficult,  in  other  words, 
where  steamers  cannot  dock  at  piers,  but  must  stay  out- 
side and  the  cargo  has  to  be  unloaded  into  lighters,  we 
usually  employ  waterproof  paper  as  a  lining  in  order  to 
avoid  damage  in  case  a  parcel  is  dropped  into  the  sea  in 
the  unloading  process.  Cases  going  to  countries  with  a 
very  humid  climate  are  tin  lined.  This  tin  lining  is  also 
employed  for  shipments  to  certain  Far  Eastern  markets 
where  merchandise  in  cases  has  frequently  been  damaged 
by  a  class  of  vermin  eating  into  it.  We  employ  tin  lining 
entirely  on  all  shipments  to  Korea. 

^' Bales. — Packing  in  bales  is  demanded  by  customers 
for  two  reasons.  The  first  reason  is  that  duty  is  assessed 
on  the  gross  weight,  and  for  that  reason  naturally  the 
customer  wants  to  have  his  tare  as  light  as  possible  in 
order  to  keep  down  the  amount  of  duty  he  has  to  pay. 
In  this  case,  we  make  bales  as  large  as  we  can  possibly, 
make  them  consistent  with  their  safe  arrival.  We  em- 
ploy a  large  power  press  to  compress  bales,  then  wrap 
the  entire  parcel  in  strong  paper,  over  which  goes  a  layer 
of  oilcloth  and  outside  burlap.  The  outside  is  then  pro- 
vided with  not  less  than  four  iron  straps.  To  avoid 
damage  to  the  merchandise  we  put  under  the  layer  of  bur- 
lap a  light  board  of  exactly  the  length  of  the  bale.  This 
board  at  the  same  time  prevents  cutting  of  the  strapping 
into  the  merchandise. 

'*The  second  reason  for  packing  in  bales  is  that  cer- 
tain markets  do  not  have  railroad  connections  with  the 
ports,  and  merchandise  has  to  be  transported  on  mule- 
back.  In  that  case  a  certain  weight  must  not  be  exceeded. 
The  weight  given  by  various  merchants  as  a  limit 
varies — but  we  have  found  that  for  the  interior  markets 
of  South  America  such  as  Colombia,  Bolivia,  etc.,  to 
cities  without  railroad  connections,  the  customary  limit 
given  is  about  50  kilos.  The  make-up  of  these  bales  is 
the  same  as  in  case  one.*' 

Another  large  textile  exporting  concern  sends  a  num- 


474  EXPORT  PACKING 

ber  of  excellent  photographs  (see  cuts  pages  479  and  480) 
and  states  that  the  ordinary  baled  goods  are  lined  with 
heavy  manila  paper  and  covered  with  burlap.  For  mule- 
back  transportation  and  better  grades  of  goods,  the  bales 
are  lined  with  paper,  oilcloth  and  burlap,  and  in  certain 
cases  tarpaulin  is  used.  The  cases  are  all  of  new  wood 
and  are  wire  strapped,  as  in  practice  this  house  believes 
it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  wire  strap  is  better 
than  iron  straps.  The  captions  of  the  photographs  in 
question  are  self-explanatory. 

Packing  of  Wool  or  Hair.— Of  value  to  shippers  of 
other  textiles  than  those  of  cotton  will  be  the  following 
excerpt  from  the  Standard  Specifications  of  the  War  De- 
partment for  the  shipment  overseas  of  army  supplies 
during  the  war. 

*^  Boxes  containing  articles  with  components  of  wool 
or  hair  shall  have  a  liberal  amount  of  naphthaline  (not 
less  than  one-half  pound  per  box)  sprinkled  evenly 
throughout  the  contents.  Naphthaline  must  be  furnished 
in  flaked  or  crushed  form.  Particles  must  be  large  enough 
so  that  they  will  not  adhere  excessively  to  the  cloth  or 
material  when  it  is  shaken.  The  product  must  be  white 
and  must  not  turn  brown  after  exposure  to  the  air  for  a 
period  of  time.  On  ignition  it  shall  be  completely  con- 
sumed, leaving  no  residue.  It  must  be  completely  soluble 
in  boiling  alcohol.  The  solidification  point  shall  be  79.5 
degrees  C.  Material  having  a  solidification  point  less 
than  79  degrees  C.  will  be  rejected. 

*'When  necessary,  a  lining  of  moth-proof  paper  shall 
be  used  in  addition  to  the  naphthaline,  and  it  shall  be 
placed  between  the  waterproof  paper  and  bogus  paper 
linings.  This  moth-proof  paper  shall  contain  either  a 
coal  tar,  naphthaline  oil,  or  red  cedar  oil  saturant,  and 
shall  be  paper  with  a  strong  odor.  When  its  use  is  con- 
sidered necessary  it  will  be  specified.'' 

Criticism  of  Textile  Packing.— Many  criticisms  of 
American  packing  of  textiles  which  have  been  received 
from  correspondents  and  importers  in  other  markets  of 
the  world  will  assist  in  shedding  light  on  what  we  do 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  TEXTILES         475 

that  we  ought  not  to  do  and  what  we  do  not  do  that 
we  ought  to  do.  Strenuous  complaints  have  been  re- 
ceived from  Manila  of  the  continual  arrival  at  that 
port  of  goods  whose  consignees  cannot  be  identified 
because  of  the  mutilation  or  destruction  of  their 
frail  containers.  We  have  before  us  a  photograph  which 
illustrates  what  was  originally  a  bale  of  white  goods 
packed  in  jute  with  metal  bands.  This  bale  with  many- 
others  was  sold  by  the  customs  authorities  in  Manila  be- 
cause it  was  impossible  to  identify  it,  having  arrived 
entirely  stripped  of  its  covering  and  bands. 

Importers  of  American  cotton  drills  in  Ceylon  say 
that  when  these  goods  arrive  by  direct  steamer  they  are 
in  fairly  good  condition,  but  when  transhipment  has  been 
necessary  the  coverings  of  the  bales  are  torn  ^nd  almost 
all  bales  are  open  at  the  ends.  Complaint  is  made  that 
the  pieces  of  cloth  on  the  bottom  of  the  bales  which  come 
in  contact  with  the  floor  for  a  time  are  found  to  be  spotted 
and  damaged.  This  is  attributed  to  the  insufficiency  of 
the  wrapper. 

Complaints  from  the  Far  East. — Experienced  import- 
ers of  American  textiles  in  China  report  that  such 
piece  goods  as  sheetings  and  drills  are  frequently 
shipped  with  merely  a  sheet  of  packing  paper  and  at 
most  two  wrappings  of  a  very  poor  quality  of  burlap. 
Colored  goods  are  shipped  in  wooden  cases,  mostly  of 
very  common  wood,  with  merely  a  brown  paper  lin- 
ing, consequently  the  merchandise  more  often  than  not 
arrives  at  destination  in  pretty  bad  shape.'  European 
manufacturers  ship  gray  goods,  or  what  are  known  in 
America  as  brown  cottons,  in  bales,  the  wrapping  of 
which  consists  of  a  heavy  packing  paper,  a  waterproof 
lining  paper,  tarred  canvas  and  a  good  quality  of  burlap 
covering,  while  colored  goods  are  invariably  shipped  in 
tin-lined  cases.  It  is  probable  that  there  have  been  more 
claims  for  damage  on  cotton  goods  than  upon  all  other 
kinds  of  American  goods  shipped  to  the  Far  East.  The 
packing  of  American  domestics  is  criticized  as  too  lightly 
pressed,  while  the  wrappers  consist  of  a  single  paper 


476  EXPORT  PACKING 

(generally  very  thin)  and  gunny  covers  bound  with  rope 
bands,  and,  when  sent  in  double  bales,  the  bales  are 
usually  trussed  with  thin  steel  bands  of  about  %  inch  by 
No.  24  gauge.  The  wrappers  are  inadequate  to  prevent 
damage  by  liquids.  In  comparison  with  American  bales, 
the  English  goods  are  heavily  pressed  and  the  wrappers 
consist  of  three  layers  of  stout  paper,  prepared  canvas, 
layer  of  brown  paper,  and  outer  wrapper  of  gunny, 
bound  with  steel  bands  of  1%  inches  by  No.  13  gauge. 
This  packing  renders  the  contents  secure  against  small 
liquid  damage,  and  it  is  difficult  for  hooks  to  penetrate 
past  it. 

The  most  serious  daipage  by  steel  bands  is  due  to  their 
becoming  twisted  because  of  the  small  gauge  of  steel, 
with  the  result  that  the  edge,  which  is  knife-like,  may 
easily  cut  other  bales  while  in  stowage.  This  damage  is 
fairly  common  and  is  accounted  for  by  the  swelling  of 
the  contents  of  the  bales  which  overlap  the  edges  of  the 
bands.  A  very  common  damage  is  that  caused  by  oil 
stains.  Some  damage  is  due  to  the  bales  coming  in  con- 
tact with  wheels  and  axles  of  cars  when  loaded,  or  it  may 
be  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  winch  or  the  winch 
chains  on  board  ship.  Paper  lining  of  bales  is  absolutely 
useless  in  preventing  the  oil  from  penetrating  to  the 
contents,  and  in  many  instances  the  packing  paper  is  of 
an  absorbent  nature  and  actually  accelerates  the  damage. 
The  effect  of  the  damage  to  gray  goods  is  that  dye  will 
not  take  where  the  oil  has  touched.  If  the  wrappings  of 
bales  do  not  extend  all  around  them,  covering  all  sides, 
or  are  broken  open  because  the  rope  bands  have  disap- 
peared, damage  ensues  from  mildew  and  dirt  stains. 

At  Shanghai  the  practice  prevails  of  stripping  the 
ropes  and  hoops  from  bales  of  piece  goods  stored  in  go- 
downs  or  loaded  on  the  coasting  steamers.  These  *' im- 
pertinences' '  to  bales  have  formed  a  regular  source  of 
revenue  to  certain  classes  of  Chinese  employees. 

From  Bombay  it  is  reported  that  American  drills  are 
not  sufficiently  protected  by  their  packing  from  cuts  and 
tears.    American  packing  consists  of  a  Hessian  cloth  and 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  TEXTILES         477 

some  paper,  whereas  the  usual  packing  of  English  piece 
goods  consists  of  Hessian  cloth  on  the  outside,  then  a 
tarpaulin  and  a  thick  gunny,  with  paper  inside.  English 
bales  are  also  larger,  heavier  and  more  compactly  pressed 
than  are  the  American  bales  of  drills. 

Of  drills  shipped  in  cases,  importers  on  the  east  coast 
of  Africa  complain  that  American  packing  only  consists 
of  a  layer  of  paper,  and  that  the  boxes  themselves  are  too 
light  for  their  weight,  which  ranges  from  250  to  300 
pounds.  Unbleached  sheetings  from  the  United  States 
are  shipped  in  bales  wrapped  in  gunny,  secured  by  ropes, 
9  to  13  ropes  to  a  bale;  inside  there  is  a  wrapping  of 
paper,  and  the  ends  of  the  bales  are  loosely  sewed.  The 
foreign  bales,  usually  containing  kanikis  and  kangas 
(women's  garments),  which  are  generally  packed  in 
gunny,  are  secured  by  iron  bands,  and  the  ends  are  very 
carefully  and  closely  sewed ;  moreover,  there  is  an  inside 
lining  of  waterproof  paper.  In  many  of  the  English 
bales  there  is  a  thin  wooden  piece  set  at  each  end,  giving 
greater  rigidity  to  the  bales  and  decreasing  the  danger 
of  damage  should  the  ends  become  torn. 

Emphasis  is  laid  on  the  necessity  for  good  end  sewing, 
for  it  is  generally  at  the  extremities  that  American  bales 
come  open.  The  chief  weakness  of  the  American  bale  is 
the  end  sewing;  the  rope  ties  seem  adequate,  though  not 
so  good  as  the  iron ;  but  the  inside  casing  of  waterproof 
paper  is  badly  needed.  If  an  iron  tie  is  used,  the  water- 
proof inner  coating  is  essential  to  protect  the  cottons 
from  rust. 

English  Method  of  Baling. — All  cotton  goods  are  im- 
ported into  Honduras  in  bales  to  save  cost.  The  English 
charge  4  shillings  for  packing  a  60-kilo  bale,  but  they 
pack  it  much  tighter  than  the  Americans,  so  that  their 
bales  are  not  over  two-thirds  the  size  of  those  from  the 
United  States  containing  the  same  quantity  of  goods. 
This  not  only  gives  an  advantage  in  freight  rate  but  is 
also  a  protection  to  the  goods  under  the  rough  handling 
they  receive  in  their  trip  to  the  interior.  The  English 
interline  with  tarred  burlap  and  bale  with  ties,  while  the 


478  EXPORT  PACKING 

American  exporters  interline  with  oilcloth  and  bale  with 
ropes.  The  ties  are  preferred,  as  ropes  are  occasionally 
cut  en  route.  The  merchants  state  that  if  thick  enough, 
oilcloth  is  all  right,  but  that  frequently  it  is  too  thin  or 
is  old  stuff  that  has  holes  in  it  and  does  not  protect  the 
goods.  For  good  oilcloth  the  merchants  are  able  to  get  a 
little  additional,  but  they  cannot  do  this  if  it  has  pre- 
viously been  worn  out  in  the  United  States.  During  the 
rainy  season  goods  are  brought  up  country  in  ox  carts  or 
by  muleback  in  the  heavy  rain,  and  if  the  marks  and 
numbers  are  not  heavily  stenciled  they  are  illegible  by 
the  time  the  goods  arrive  in  the  interior. 

All  cotton  goods  shipped  to  Salvador  come  in  bales. 
American  bales  are  wrapped  in  paper  and  oilcloth,  some- 
times only  in  brown  paper  around  which  is  put  the  outer 
burlap.  The  English  first  use  paper,  then  ordinary  bur- 
lap, then  tarred  burlap  and  then  the  outer  burlap,  which 
makes  the  bale  almost  watertight. 

Most  of  the  cotton  goods  for  Bolivia  comes  in  bales 
weighing  under  100  pounds,  or  at  least  under  125  pounds. 
Frequently  several  small  bales  are  strapped  up  in  one 
bale  for  import  to  the  towns  and  then  divided  for  ship- 
ment to  the  interior. 

Indicative  of  the  restraints  that  packing  requirements 
have  imposed,  it  may  be  noted  that  the  preference  in 
Colombia  for  piece  goods  26  to  28  inches  in  width  had  its 
origin  in  the  custom  of  making  bales  of  cloth  for  mule- 
back  packing  26  to  28  inches  long  so  as  to  prevent  the 
iron  strapping  of  the  package  from  chafing  the  thighs 
of  the  animal.  Furthermore,  prints  and  dress  goods  are 
put  up  in  bolts  containing  either  10  or  30  yards,  the 
former  quantity  being  sufficient  to  complete  the  garment 
desired  by  the  purchaser,  and  the  latter  for  the  retail- 
counter  trade. 

All  of  the  houses  in  Maracaibo,  Venezuela,  which  im- 
port dry  goods,  complain  against  the  use  of  hooks  on 
bales  of  cotton  piece  goods.  They  assert  that  eight  out 
of  every  ten  bales  contain  damaged  pieces  of  cloth  with 
holes  cut  by  the  bale  hooks.    One  house  states  that  its 


Courtesy  of  M.  C.   D.   Borden  d  Son. 
Baling  of  Textiles. 
Bale  is  in  position  and  is  about  to  6e  placed  under  preasure. 


Courtesy  of  M.  G.  D.  Borden  d  Son. 
Bale  Under  Pressure. 
Bale  shown  in  this  photograph  is  under  a  preasure  of  2,000  lla.  per  aquare 
inch.    Burlap  is  being  sewed  on  all  sides. 

479 


Courtesy  of  M.  C.  D.  Borden  &  8on.^ 
Strapping  of  Bale. 
Iron  straps  being  tightened. 


Courtesy  of  Peck  &  Hills. 
Wicker  Chairs  Ready  for  Packing. 
Pile  of  knocked  down  chairs,  ready  to  be  measured  for  crate  or  case. 

480 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  TEXTILES        481 

individual  damage  from  this  cause  amounts  to  over  $200 
every  year.  In  shipping  white  goods,  prints,  etc.,  oil- 
cloth or  burlap  should  be  interposed  between  the  paper 
and  the  outer  burlap.  In  shipping  gray  goods,  however, 
this  is  not  thought  necessary  by  these  importers  and  is 
always  omitted  by  Americans,  as  it  saves  in  first  cost 
and  duty. 

From  Buenos  Aires  it  was  not  long  ago  reported  that 
buyers  of  supplies  for  local  shoe  factories  complained  of 
the  American  practice  of  shipping  textiles  for  shoe  linings 
in  cases  instead  of  in  bales.  A  long  correspondence  was 
necessary  before  the  manufacturers  in  the  United  States 
could  be  made  to  understand  that  the  contents  of  20 
wooden  cases  might  be  packed  into  16  cases  if  the  pieces 
were  heavily  compressed,  while  identically  the  same 
yardage  might  be  shipped  in  only  8  bales,  effecting  a  very 
important  saving  in  freight  rates. 

Book  Cloths. — A  large  exporter  writes:  **0n  large 
export  shipments  of  book  cloth  the  ordinary  wooden  case 
used  measures  39"x20"x20"  inside,  and  contains  about 
twenty-five  rolls  of  book  cloth,  approximately  sixty  yards 
to  the  roll.  This  case,  outside  measure,  has  a  displace- 
ment of  9  7/10  cubic  feet. 

**  Special  cases  of  all  sizes  are  made  on  smaller  ship- 
ments— cases  holding  from  one  or  two  to  twenty-five  rolls 
each.  Each  case  is  double  and  sometimes  triple  lined 
with  a  good  quality  of  heavy  waterproof  paper;  is  se- 
curely fastened  by  the  use  of  nails  and  strapped  about 
with  heavy  iron  straps.  Each  individual  roll  of  cloth  is 
wrapped  nearly  the  full  length  in  paper,  but  this  is  done 
for  domestic  as  well  as  export  shipping.'' 

Packing  of  Knit  Goods,  Hosiery,  etc. — A  prominent 
manufacturer  of  hosiery  says  in  a  letter  to  the  author: 
"First.  We  pack  our  merchandise  as  is  desired  by  our 
customers.  In  countries  where  import  duty  is  paid  on 
gross  weight,  naturally  they  require  shipment  in  bales, 
and  in  that  case  each  dozen  of  hosiery  is  first  wrapped 
in  white,  grease-proof  paper,  and  then  bundles  of  about 
25  dozen  are  wrapped  in  waterproof  paper,  and  possibly 


482  EXPORT  PACKING 

four  or  six  or  eight  bundles  placed  together,  forming  a 
bale,  which  is  again  made  waterproof,  then  covered  with 
1-inch  mesh  chicken  wire,  after  which  the  bale  is  thor- 
oughly covered  with  burlap.  This  chicken  wire  is  for  the 
prevention  of  theft,  and  we  have  found  it  very  etfective. 

* '  Second.  In  other  countries  where  duty  is  not  paid 
on  gross  weight,  but  when  ocean  freight  is  paid  on  a  basis 
of  cubic  measurements,  we  again  wrap  each  dozen  in 
white  grease-proof  paper,  packing  same  in  a  seaworthy 
case,  lined  with  waterproof  paper  to  prevent  damage 
from  moisture.  This  is  the  method  generally  employed 
in  most  South  American  countries. 

*'To  Europe  generally,  however,  regular  packing  is 
required.  By  that  we  mean  each  dozen  of  our  cotton  num- 
bers are  put  in  boxes  of  one  dozen,  silk  numbers  being 
in  boxes  of  one-half  dozen.  These  boxes  or  cartons  are 
then  packed  in  a  seaworthy  case  thoroughly  lined  with 
waterproof  paper.  In  every  instance,  however,  the  sea- 
going cases  are  specially  built  for  each  individual  order 
and  are  of  %-incli  soft  wood  with  double  heads,  and  any 
case  of  30  inches  in  length  or  over  is  reenforced  on  all 
four  sides  with. battens,  and  in  every  instance  is  bound 
with  iron  strapping. 

**In  the  case  of  parcel  post  shipments,  generally  each 
dozen  is  wrapped  in  white  grease-proof  paper,  and  then 
built  into  a  package  of  the  proper  size,  so  as  to  remain 
within  the  limits  of  gross  weight,  and  thoroughly  covered 
with  waterproof  paper.  In  some  countries,  however, 
Cuba  particularly,  our  regular  boxing  is  employed,  and 
then  built  into  a  package  to  remain  within  the  limits  of 
gross  weight,  thoroughly  covered  with  waterproof 
paper. '  ^ 

A  large  exporter  of  silk  and  cotton  gloves,  silk  hose, 
silk  underwear  and  cotton-ribbed  underwear,  writes : 

^*We  build  a  new  case  for  every  shipment  and  accord- 
ing to  the  necessities  of  each  shipment ;  we  use  no  stand- 
ardized case,  but  they  are  all  built  of  new  %-inch  lumber 
(white  pine)  and  strongly  strapped  with  heavy  metal 
strapping  and,  in  the  case  of  silk  goods  going  to  South 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  TEXTILES        483 

Africa,  tin-lined  besides.  We  have  rarely  had  complaints 
of  goods  arriving  in  bad  condition,  although  we  have  had 
many  cases  of  goods  pilfered  en  route  even  from  tin-lined 
cases.  We  do  not  charge  for  ordinary  export  cases,  but 
tin  lining  is  charged  at  cost. 

'*As  stated  before,  we  have  no  standard  size  case,  but 
build  each  of  a  size  to  suit  the  particular  lot  that  is  to  go 
out,  and  thus  the  customer  never  has  to  pay  freight  on  a 
lot  of  wasted  space,  for,  of  course,  all  our  goods  go  by 
cubic  measurement  and  not  by  weight. 

*' Unless  the  article  to  be  shipped  is  of  an  unvarying 
standard  size,  standard  shipping  cases  should  be  avoided, 
as  it  so  often  means  that  the  consignee  has  to  pay  for 
several  cubic  feet  of  excelsior  or  old  paper. 

'*  Great  care  should  be  taken  in  ascertaining  the  exact 
net,  legal  and  gross  weights  of  each  case,  and  where  dif- 
ferent classes  of  merchandise  are  packed  in  the  same  case 
the  net  and  legal  weights  of  each  grade  of  goods  should 
be  shown;  in  fact,  many  merchants  ask  that  the  net  and 
legal  weights  of  each  style  in  the  consignment  be  shown, 
as  it  greatly  assists  them  in  figuring  their  costs.  Too 
much  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  the  necessity  of  exact 
accuracy  in  weighing  goods,  as  in  most  countries  duties 
are  collected  on  the  net  or  legal  weight,  and  a  wrongful 
declaration  means  a  heavy  fine  for  the  consignee,  which 
he  naturally  will  expect  to  be  reimbursed  for  by  the 
shipper,  and  unless  the  shipper  is  willing  to  lose  a  cus- 
tomer he  will  have  to  pay  it. 

' '  Cases  should  be  marked  plainly,  a  stencil  should  in- 
variably be  used ;  some  countries  demand  it ;  and  no  ad- 
vertising matter  should  be  shown.  Customers'  instruc- 
tions as  to  marking  and  numbering  should  be  strictly 
followed.  Net,  legal  and  gross  weights  in  pounds  and 
kilos  to  be  stenciled  in,  as  also  measurements. 

**When  shipping  to  points  where  there  are  adequate 
port  facilities  dry  goods  should  be  packed  in  as  large  a 
case  as  possible  consistent  with  strength  and  as  long  as 
it  is  not  too  heavy.  For  instance,  we  have  shipped  knit 
underwear  (cotton)  to  Norway  in  cases  49"  x  37"  x  34", 


484 


EXPORT  PACKING 


containing  127  dozen  garments,  gross  weight  445  pounds 
or  201.85  kilos. 

*^  Great  care  should  be  taken  in  ascertaining  the 
methods  of  calculating  duties  in  the  country  the  shipment 
is  going  to.  Where  duties  are  based  on  net  weights, 
goods  such  as  hose,  gloves,  etc.,  can  be  shipped  in  cartons ; 
where  duties  are  charged  on  legal  weights,  all  cartons, 
labels,  etc.,  have  to  be  omitted  and  the  goods  packed  in 
bulk,  each  dozen  wrapped  in  tissue  paper  and  each  six 
or  twelve  dozen  so  wrapped,  again  wrapped  in  strong 
but  very  light  paper.    Where  tin  lining  is  not  used,  the 


■C^SE    END    BATTEM.  MITREO.  JOINTS 

Courtesy  of  Bech,  Van  Siclen  d  Co.,  Inc. 


case  should  be  lined  with  good  waterproof  paper,  but  care 
should  be  taken  that  this  paper  does  not  contain  too  much 
tar,  as  this  is  liable  to  sweat  going  through  the  tropics, 
and  if  the  contents  are  dry  goods  will  stain  the  goods. 
We  had  a  case  of  this  the  other  day  and  have  changed 
our  waterproofing  papers.^' 

A  New  York  export  merchant  suggests  that  bales  con- 
taining small  articles  of  wearing  apparel,  dry  goods, 
hosiery,  etc.,  should  always  be  strapped  both  ways,  and 
that  in  shipping  to  some  countries  it  is  even  advisable  to 
line  the  bales  with  poultry  netting  as  a  protection  against 
pilfering.  This  merchant  believes  that  all  bales  should 
be  lined  with  oilcloth,  which  he  regards  as  the  greatest 
protection  against  oil  and  water  stains. 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  TEXTILES        485 

Shipping  of  Textiles. — Another  large  export  mer- 
chant, shipping  chiefly  textiles,  sends  copies  of  packing 
instructions  sent  to  mills  with  which  export  orders  are 
placed,  which  may  be  commended  to  the  most  careful 
study  of  the  reader.  This  house  submits  a  typical  dia- 
gram of  the  shipping  case  desired  (see  cut,  page  484),  the 
instructions  reading  as  follows : 

*'The  following  instructions  apply  to  shipments  of 
silk  hosiery  and  similarly  valuable  commodities  where 
values  of  shipments  are  so  great  as  to  warrant  the  most 
expensive  waterproof  and  pilfer-proof  packing  as  the 
best  economy. 

Packing  Instructions — Cases — Style  1 

**(Not  to  be  used  if  contents'  weight  exceeds  500 
pounds  or  cubic  measurement  exceeds  27  feet,  when  pack- 
ing must  conform  to  our  instructions  Style  4.) 

*^Make  of  new  wood  not  less  than  %  inch  in  thickness. 
Waterproof,  line  with  tar-coated  paper  and  strap  with 
strong  20/22  gauge  hoop  iron,  one  inch  wide  bands,  to  be 
tightly  drawn  and  sealed  about  ends,  nailing  with  3"  nails 
placed  every  four  inches.  Use  band  %"  in  width  with 
signode  seal  applied  about  middle. 

Packing  Instructions — Cases — Style  2 

**(Not  to  be  used  if  contents'  weight  exceeds  500 
pounds  or  cubic  measurement  exceeds  27  feet,  when  pack- 
ing must  conform  to  our  instructions  Style  4.) 

*  ^  Make  of  new  wood  not  less  than  %  iiich  in  thickness. 
Waterproof,  line  with  table  oil  cloth  and  strap  with 
strong  20/22  gauge  hoop  iron  one  inch  wide  bands,  to  be 
tightly  drawn  and  sealed  about  ends,  nailing  with  3"  nails 
placed  every  four  inches.  Use  band  %"  in  width  with 
signode  seal  applied  about  middle. 

Packing  Instructions — Cases — Style  3 

**(Not  to  be  used  if  contents  weight  exceeds  500 
pounds  or  cubic  measurement  exceeds  27  feet,  when  pack- 
ing must  conform  to  our  instructions  Style  4.) 

**Make  of  new  wood  not  less  than  %  inch  in  thickness. 
Line  cases  with  tin  and  hermetically  seal,  and  strap  with 
strong  20/22  gauge  hoop  iron  one  inch  wide  bands,  to  be 


486  EXPORT  PACKING 

tightly  drawn  and  sealed  about  ends,  nailing  with  3" 
nails  placed  every  four  inches.  Use  band  %"  in  width 
with  signode  seal  applied  about  middle. 

Packing  Instructions — Cases — Style  4-1 

**  Special  for  unusually  large  cases  or  where  weight  is 
excessive. 

'*Make  of  new  wood  not  less  than  1  inch  in  thickness, 
with  6"  wide  by  1"  thick  end  battens  nailed  to  case  ends, 
properly  and  closely  fitted  to  give  strong  support  for 
side  board  end  nailing. 

*' These  battens  to  have  mitred  and  not  straight  joints 
to  prevent  the  case  from  opening  up  because  of  swaying 
side  motion  in  a  sea-roll. 

**  Waterproof  line  with  tar-coated  paper  and  strap 
with  strong  20/22  gauge  hoop  iron  one  inch  wide  bands, 
to  be  tightly  drawn  and  sealed  about  ends,  nailing  with 
3"  nails  placed  every  four  inches.  Use  two  bands  %"  in 
width  with  signode  seals,  and  apply  evenly  spaced  about 
middle. 

Packing  Instructions — Cases — Style  4-2 

*  *  Special  for  unusually  large  cases  or  where  weight  is 
excessive. 

^*Make  of  new  wood  not  less  than  1  inch  in  thickness, 
with  6"  wide  by  1"  thick  end  battens  nailed  to  case  ends, 
properly  and  closely  fitted  to  give  strong  support  for 
side  board  end  nailing. 

**  These  battens  to  have  mitred  and  not  straight  joints 
to  prevent  the  case  from  opening  up  because  of  swaying 
side  motion  in  a  sea-roll. 

**  Waterproof  line  with  table  oilcloth  and  strap  with 
strong  20/22  gauge  hoop  iron  one  inch  wide  bands,  to  be 
tightly  drawn  and  sealed  about  ends,  nailing  with  3"  nails 
placed  every  four  inches.  Use  two  bands  %"  in  width 
with  signode  seals  and  apply  evenly  spaced  about  middle. 
Packing  Instructions — Cases — Style  4-3 

**  Special  for  unusually  large  cases  or  where  weight  is 
excessive. 

*^Make  of  new  wood  not  less  than  1  inch  in  thickness, 
with  6"  wide  by  1"  thick  end  battens  nailed  to  case  ends, 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  TEXTILES        487 

properly  and  closely  fitted  to  give  strong  support  for 
side  board  end  nailing. 

''These  battens  to  have  mitred  and  not  straight  joints 
to  prevent  the  case  from  opening  up  because  of  swaying 
side  motion  in  a  sea-roll. 

**Line  cases  with  tin  and  hermetically  seal,  and  strap 
with  strong  20/22  gauge  hoop  iron  one  inch  wide  bands, 
to  be  tightly  drawn  and  sealed  about  ends,  nailing  with 
3"  nails  placed  every  four  inches.  Use  two  bands  34"  in 
width  with  signode  seals  and  apply  evenly  spaced  about 
middle. 

Packing  Instructions — Bales — Style  1 

** Waterproof  with  tar-lined  paper,  strap  with  strong 
iron  bands  and  use  signode  sealing.  Bales  to  be  hydraulic 
pressed. 

Packing  Instructions — Bales — Style  2. 

^'Waterproof  with  table  oilcloth,  strap  with  strong 
iron  bands  and  use  signode  sealing.  Bales  to  be  hydraulic 
pressed. 

Packing  Instructions — Bales — Style  3 

"Waterproof  with  double  table  oilcloth  and  tarpaulin. 
Strap  with  strong  iron  bands  and  use  signode  sealing. 
Bales  to  be  hydraulic  pressed. 

"Markings  for  all  cases  and  bales  of  every  descrip- 
tion :  Stencil  all  bales  with  markings  as  per  order  copy  in 
letters  or  numbers  not  less  than  21/0  inches  high.  Mark' 
on  both  ends.  Mark  also  with  gross,  legal  and  net  weight 
in  kilos  (if  possible).  Also  mark  with  cubic  measure- 
ment of  each  bale  or  case.'^ 

This  house  further  comments:  "We  anticipate  your 
criticizing  us  for  leaving  off  side  battens  of  wood  under 
strap  iron  bands  from  our  case  specifications.  We  are 
doing  this  for  three  reasons : 

"First. — The  heavy  gauge  strap  iron  nailed  with  3" 
nails  we  believe  to  be  equally  protecting. 

"Second. — The  American  mills'  domestic  cases  are 
not  battened.  Therefore,  the  use  of  battens  would  pre- 
sent a  difficulty  for  them  to  adjust  themselves  to  with 
readiness. 


488  EXPORT  PACKING 

*^  Third  and  last  reason  is  that  these  battens  use  up 
additional  ship  space,  causing  an  added  freight  cost  any- 
where from  50  cents  to  $2.50  a  case  that  seems  to  us  a 
waste  not  compensated  for  by  the  add<3d  protection. 

^*The  mills  of  this  country  are  now  showing  a  very 
accommodating  spirit  regarding  packing  exactly  as  the 
export  trade  desires.  There  is  no  contrary  spirit  to  con- 
tend with  today,  whatever  may  have  been  the  past  con- 
dition. The  extra  cost  of  export  packing  will  be  charged 
for.'' 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
PACKING  FURNITURE 

EXPORTS  in  1919  of  American  metal  and  wood  fur- 
niture were  some  $7,819,025,  as  compared  with 
$5,349,320  in  1918,  and  whereas  the  growth  is 
considerable,  it  could  well  have  been  produced  by  those 
conditions  which  have  brought  about  expansion  in  the 
foreign  trade  in  general  of  the  United  States.  Therefore, 
there  is  no  reason  to  explain  the  situation  by  alleging 
superior  merchandise  or  increased  interest  on  the  part 
of  shippers.  The  writer  believes,  however,  that  Ameri- 
can trade  in  steel  and  wood  furniture  has  a  very  large 
*' spread''  that  it  has  not  yet  covered,  and  certainly  the 
business  in  office  furniture  could  be  very  materially  in- 
creased with  adequate  attention  to  the  work,  and  deter- 
mination to  build  up  foreign  sales. 

In  the  furniture  trade  abroad  there  are  a  great  many 
competitive  considerations  that  the  American  exporter 
has  to  face.  There  is  the  question  of  style,  which  varies 
greatly  in  different  countries  and  which  frequently  is 
influenced  by  many  factors;  local  factors,  such  as  those 
present  in  different  South  American  countries,  and  for- 
eign influences,  like  that  of  France,  in  many  parts  of  the 
world.  In  addition  there  is  local  production  which  must 
be  taken  into  account,  for  woodworking  is  one  of  the 
oldest  trades,  and  skilled  men  are  found  in  almost  every 
country.  To  be  sure  this  latter  consideration  does  not 
apply,  in  many  countries,  to  steel  furniture,  as  this  is  an 
industry  of  comparatively  recent  development  and  re- 
quires both  equipment  and  special  training  for  its 
development. 

Faulty  Packing  Practice. — However,  it  would  seem 
that  the  American  manufacturer  has  to  contend  abroad 


490  EXPORT  PACKING 

chiefly  with  his  own  bad  packing,  and  from  many  dif- 
ferent quarters  unfavorable  testimony  on  this  point  is 
available.  Characteristic  of  this  testimony  are  certain 
statements  in  Harold  E.  Everley's  report  on  the  '^Furni- 
ture Markets  of  Chile,  Peru,  Bolivia  and  Ecuador,^'  re- 
cently published  by  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic 
Commerce,  in  which  stress  is  laid  upon  the  paramount 
necessity  of  good  packing  in  foreign  shipments  of  furni- 
ture. Speaking  of  Chile,  Mr.  Everley  writes:  ''One  of 
the  requirements  of  the  furniture  trade  with  Chile  is 
better  packing.  American  export  packing  must  be  greatly 
improved.  Aside  from  firms  that  specialize  in  certain 
lines  and  have  studied  carefully  the  requirements  of  for- 
eign packing,  American  manufacturers,  generally  speak- 
ing, have  improved  very  little  in  their  methods  during 
the  past  two  or  three  years.  This  is  probably  due  in  some 
respects  to  the  trying  conditions  caused  by  the  war.  One 
thing  American  exporters  should  bear  in  mind  is  that 
goods  are  probably  handled  more  roughly  on  the  West 
Coast  of  South  America  than  anywhere  else  in  the  world, 
Some  of  the  officials  supervising  the  unloading  of  the 
ships,  as  well  as  most  of  the  workmen,  seem  to  take  very 
little  interest  in  the  way  cargoes  are  handled,  and  as  a 
result  there  are  endless  breakages  and  consequently  much 
loss  from  pilfering. 

' '  The  common  criticisms  of  American  packing  are  that 
the  cases  are  too  light,  the  lumber  used  is  too  brittle  and 
splinters  very  easily,  nails  are  not  of  sufficient  length  to 
hold  securely,  and  there  are  usually  no  strap-girdles 
around  boxes  to  keep  them  from  bulging  open  or  coming 
entirely  apart.  It  has  been  suggested  by  the  manager 
of  the  shipping  department  of  one  of  the  most  important 
steamship  lines  that  cases  of  goods  to  be  shipped  to  the 
west  coast  countries  of  South  America,  should  be  tested 
to  withstand  a  dead  drop  of  at  least  ten  feet  before  they 
are  allowed  to  leave  the  packing  rooms  of  the  factory. 
While  this  seems  to  be  a  severe  test,  it  is  not  nearly  so 
severe  as  the  treatment  they  are  likely  to  receive  before 
reaching  their  destination. 


491 


Seat  of  bed  is  placed  in  oil-paper  lined  crate, 
placed  between  each  part. 


Courtesy  of  S.  Karpen  d  Bros. 
Packing  op  Bed. 

Layers  of  waterproof  paper 


Oourtesv  of  8.  Karpen  d  Bros. 
Bed  Being  Placed  in  Crate. 
Bach  of  bed  placed  in  case  on  top  of  seat. 

492 


PACKING  FURNITURE  493 

^*  Extra  strong  cases  or  crates  must  be  used  to  with- 
stand the  numerous  operations  of  handling.  Damage 
often  results  during  hoisting  by  tackles.  The  sides  of 
cases  sometimes  collapse  when  the  slings  become  taut, 
causing  the  tackle  to  give  way  and  the  package  to  fall  a 
long  distance  into  the  hold  of  the  vessel  or  onto  the 
lighter,  or  not  infrequently  into  the  sea.  The  contents 
of  a  case  should  be  securely  fastened  within  to  prevent 
moving  about,  and  proper  reenforcements  of  the  weak 
parts  of  the  exterior  covering  should  be  made. 

^'A  proper  method  of  marking  a  case  should  be  used. 
The  numbers  of  the  cases,  destination  of  the  goods  and 
name  or  mark  of  the  importer  should  be  stenciled  on 
with  good  paint  in  figures  and  letters  at  least  21/0"  to  3" 
in  height.  There  should  be  a  discontinuance  of  the  prac- 
tice of  covering  boxes  with  English  advertisements, 
which  are  generally  burnt  into  the  wood  while  the  really 
important  information  is  carelessly  marked  on  with  a 
brush  and  inferior  ink — the  letters  being  often  so  small  as 
to  be  almost  or  completely  obliterated  before  the  case 
reaches  its  destination.  This  condition  does  not  obtain 
in  the  case  of  goods  from  Europe ;  very  little  if  any  adver- 
tising is  used,  while  the  names,  numbers  and  addresses 
are  properly  marked,  easily  read  and  withstand  a  great 
amount  of  rough  handling.  The  matter  of  marking  cases 
is  something  that  American  exporters,  should  seriously 
consider  in  order  to  avoid  trouble." 

Manufacturing  Furniture  for  Export. — Before  any 
furniture  can  be  properly  packed  for  export,  attention 
should  have  been  paid  to  the  manufacturing  with  this 
special  end  in  view.  Furniture  must  never  be  packed  until 
the  varnished  surfaces  are  thoroughly  dry  and  hard. 
Many  complaints  have  been  received  of  wrapping  paper 
used  to  surround  furniture  surfaces  and  excelsior  used 
for  protection  having  stuck  to  varnish  not  thoroughly 
hard,  with  the  result  that  when  the  articles  arrived  at 
points  of  destination  they  had  to  be  scraped,  re-varnished 
and  re-finished  before  they  were  in  salable  or  even  usable 
condition. 


494  EXPORT  PACKING 

Several  phases  of  the  activities  of  the  Forest  Products 
Laboratory  at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  have  a  bearing  on 
the  problems  of  shipping  furniture  overseas.  According 
to  '^Technical  Notes,''  published  by  the  Laboratory: 
'^  These  cover  the  conditioning  or  preparation  of  the  wood 
to  suit  the  climate  to  which  the  furniture  will  be  sent,  the 
use  of  waterproof  glues,  kiln  drying,  boxing  and  crating 
for  overseas  shipments,  and  possible  treatments  to  pre- 
vent depreciations  of  wood-destroying  insects.  While 
information  is  at  hand  on  general  principles,  the  applica- 
tion of  these  principles  to  the  needs  of  the  furniture  in- 
dustry has  never  been  studied,  and  cannot  be  undertaken 
without  the  cooperation  of  manufacturers. 

**In  general,  it  can  be  stated  that  furniture  manufac- 
tured in  the  north  central  states  will  check  and  open  up 
when  sent  to  desert  regions,  and  that  its  wood  will  swell, 
the  glue  joints  open  up,  and  the  veneering  come  otf  when 
it  is  sent  to  tropical,  humid  regions.  Exact  knowledge  of 
the  climatic  conditions  surrounding  the  use  of  the  furni- 
ture at  its  destination,  and  a  reproduction  of  these  con- 
ditions in  the  factory  through  the  control  of  humidity  in 
work  rooms,  should  offer  the  successful  solution  of  this 
problem.  This  would  be  coupled  with  consideration  of 
drying  the  lumber  to  the  proper  moisture  content,  and 
shipment  in  moisture-proof  packages  to  insure  delivery 
in  good  condition. 

*^  Furniture  as  well  as  other  wood  products  used  in 
the  tropics  is  subjected  to  the  attack  of  insects  known  as 
termites.  This  attack  is  excessive  in  South  America  in 
the  coastal  regions  north  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  is  so  cer- 
tain and  so  severe  that,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Forest 
Products  Laboratory,  it  is  undesirable  to  export  wooden 
furniture  to  those  regions  unless  the  wood  used  is 
naturally  resistant  to  termites  or  is  treated  with  a  poison 
which  will  prevent  the  attack  of  these  insects,  such  as 
mercuric  chloride.'' 

The  Forest  Products  Laboratory  has  recently  been 
conducting  several  courses  for  the  benefit  of  manufac- 
turers, dealing  with  kiln  drying  and  the  handling  of  glues 


PACKING  FURNITURE  495 

and  ply-wood.  Twenty-one  different  manufacturers  sent 
representatives  to  the  second  course  given  in  this  line, 
and  it  is  understood  that  similar  courses  are  to  be  con- 
tinued and  elaborated. 

Observations  of  Export  Merchants. — Furniture  is,  of 
course,  one  of  the  most  difficult  products  to  pack  properly, 
and  several  letters  on  this  subject  have  been  received 
from  export  merchants  who  have  had  experience  in  ex- 
porting this  line.  A  New  York  export  merchant  dealing 
largely  with  the  Levant  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that 
few  iron  bedsteads  are  shipped  from  the  United  States 
despite  the  fact  that  the  English,  notably  the  Birming- 
ham manufacturers  of  such  bedsteads,  have  a  tremendous 
trade  not  only  in  the  Levant  but  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 
This  merchant  states  that  the  difficulty  with  American 
metal  bedsteads  is  not  that  prices  are  too  high,  or  is  not 
even  essentially  the  fact  that  styles  and  methods  of  manu- 
facture are  somewhat  different  from  the  English,  but  the 
main  objection  to  the  use  of  American  metal  bedsteads 
lies  in  the  packing  for  export  to  which  American  manu- 
facturers have  seemed  to  pay  little  attention.  Ordinarily 
American  goods  in  this  line  are  shipped  one  bedstead 
in  each  case,  which  often  measures  in  excess  of  20  cubic 
feet.  English  and  other  European  manufacturers  wrap 
all  the  flat  pieces  with  suitable  paper.  The  side  bars  are 
laid  flat,  protected  with  straw  rope  and  straw  laid  loose, 
and  either  bundled  or  crated,  or  several  complete  bed- 
steads are  packed  in  a  crate  or  case  which  when  complete 
measures  considerably  less  than  a  ton.  The  development 
of  American  exports  in  this  line  is  believed  by  this  mer- 
chant to  depend  chiefly,  if  not  solely,  on  the  improvement 
in  our  export  packing  to  gain  cubic  space  and  bring  the 
resulting  delivery  costs  down  to  the  level  of  similar  goods 
of  European  competing  manufacturers. 

The  same  merchant  writes  in  regard  to  the  packing  of 
knocked  down  furniture,  that  very  frequently  such  ship- 
ments are  not  properly  marked  and  arranged,  containing 
no  packing  lists,  which  ought  to  be  placed  inside  each 
case,  and  that  the  different  pieces  are  not  properly  num- 


496  EXPORT  PACKING 

bered  so  as  to  indicate  the  exact  position  which  that 
piece  is  to  occupy  and  facilitate  the  putting  together  of 
the  entire  article.  It  would  be  better  to  enclose  a  blue 
print  or  a  photograph  with  each  piece  of  knocked  down 
Pumiture  to  show  to  the  customers  exactly  how  that  piece 
of  furniture  appears  when  set  up. 

A  prominent  house  exporting  to  South  Africa  states 
that  the  invariable  rule  ought  to  be  that  all  furniture 
should  be  so  packed  that  the  cases  or  crates  may  be  turned 
upside  down  and  transported  in  any  position.  The  great 
thing  to  guard  against  is  the  danger  of  varnished  surfaces 
rubbing  against  the  cases  or  crates.  Another  point  made 
by  this  merchant  is  that  knobs  and  handles,  some  decora- 
tive carvings,  etc.,  are  frequently  broken  off  and  keys  are 
frequently  missing.  All  handles,  knobs  and  keys  should 
be  taken  off  and  packed  in  a  separate  box  securely  tied  to 
or  preferably,  in  some  manner,  attached  to  some  part 
of  the  piece  of  furniture  where  the  separate  box  can 
readily  be  found. 

Objection  is  also  made  to  the  way  in  which  some 
American  manufacturers  ship  bureaus  and  dressers  and 
the  mirrors  which  go  with  them.  It  appears  that  manu- 
facturers more  frequently  than  not  simply  cover  the 
mirror  with  paper  and  crate  it,  witl;  the  natural  conse- 
quence that  a  great  many  of  them  are  broken  on  arrival. 
This  export  merchant  advocates  following  the  English 
practice  of  packing  each  mirror  in  a  separate  box  thor- 
oughly cushioned  with  excelsior,  and  enclosing  that  box, 
which  in  turn  should  be  properly  protected,  inside  the 
box  containing  the  other  pieces  of  the  furniture  in  ques- 
tion. (See  also  explanation  of  ^'floating"  in  chapter  on 
the  packing  of  glass  and  fragile  goods.)  Attention  is 
also  directed  to  the  fact  that  some  kinds  of  furniture 
which  permit  of  very  close  boxing,  such,  for  example, 
as  refrigerators,  not  infrequently  suffer  from  careless 
nailing  of  the  outside  cases,  the  nails  being  driven  into 
the  furniture  contents  instead  of  into  the  inside  ends  or 
braces  of  the  case  where  they  properly  belong. 

Another  export  merchant,  dealing  with  certain  trop- 


CourtPfiy  of  8.  Karpen  d  Bros. 
Packing  of  Bed  and  Box  Couch. 
Illustrotion   at  left  shows  method  of  packing  hed.     Two  ends  are  placed  on 
top  of  hark.     Note  excelsior  pads  which  prevent  rubbing  of  parts.     Illustration 
at  right  shotcs  box  couch  wrapped  and  firmly  held  ease. 


Courtesy  of  The  Century  Co. 
Transporting  Piano  in  South  America. 
Illustration  shows  that  pianos  do  not  alicays  travel  in  vans  and  should  he 
packed   accordingly. 

497 


Courtesy  of  Oeo.  Borgfeldt  d  Co. 
Crated  Floor  Lamp. 
To  fit  lamp  closely  orate  is  tapered.    Shades  are  packed  separately. 


Courtesy  of  Victor  Talking  Machine  Co, 
Packing  of  Phonograph  Records. 
Photograph  shows  single  record  in  envelope,  corrugated  hoard  l)0x  containing 
2S  records,  boxes  placed  in  case  and  closed  case.     (Series  1.) 

498 


PACKING  FURNITURE  499 

ical  countries  of  South  America,  points  out  that  the  glue 
used  in  some  American  furniture  is  either  not  of  the  right 
quality  or  is  improperly  used,  because  sometimes  pieces 
of  furniture  fall  apart  under  the  influence  of  the  tropics. 
This  merchant  urges  that  furniture  for  the  tropics  should 
be  fastened  with  screws,  and  if  glue  is  ever  used  it  should 
be  supplementary  to  the  screws  and  most  carefully  and 
scientifically  employed. 

Where  lightness  is  desirable  in  shipments,  as  to  cer- 
tain countries  where  duties  are  assessed  on  the  basis  of 
gross  weights,  all  furniture  should,  whenever  possible,  be 
shipped  knocked  down,  thoroughly  protected  from  the 
danger  of  abrasion  by  the  use  of  thick  beds  of  excelsior, 
then  wrapped  in  burlap  and  finally  very  lightly  but  solidly 
crated.  Extreme  care  should  be  exercised  that  no  drops 
or  other  misusage  of  shipping  packages  can  cause  spring- 
ing or  breaking  of  the  contents. 

Reduction  in  Cubic  Space  Necessary. — One  of  the  mis- 
takes in  export  shipping  to  which  furniture  manufac- 
turers seem  particularly  prone  is  the  disregard  of  the 
widely  known  and  constantly  emphasized  fact,  that  ocean 
freight  rates  on  such  comparatively  light  commodities 
as  furniture  are  charged,  not  on  the  weight  of  the  pack- 
ages, but  on  their  cubic  measurement.  The  economizing 
of  the  cubic  measurement  of  each  case  containing  furni- 
ture, even  if  only  by  a  few  cubic  inches,  means  a  corre- 
sponding decrease  in  the  cost  of  the  goods  to  the  foreign 
customer.  Complaints  are  constantly  being  received 
from  buyers  of  the  disregard  of  specific  and  repeated 
packing  instructions  given  to  manufacturers,  which  have 
entailed  the  loss  of  a  good  deal  af  money  because  of  the 
excessive  freights  paid  on  account  of  unnecessarily  large 
packing  or  the  neglect  to  include  small  packages  in  the 
otherwise  vacant  spaces  in  larger  cases.  An  example  is 
given  of  a  shipment  to  the  Argentine  Eepublic  of  sec- 
tional book  cases,  card  index  boxes,  etc.  These  were  all 
shipped  separately,  whereas  the  small  card  index  boxes 
might  easily  have  been  packed  in  the  empty  spaces  inside 
the  bases  of  the  sectional  book  cases.    A  good  many  cubic 


500  EXPORT  PACKING 

feet  of  space  which  had  to  be  paid  for  at  high  freight 
rates  were  wasted  in  shipments  of  this  description.  In 
another  case  a  manufacturer  failed  to  nest  metal  cash 
boxes  as  he  ought  to  have  nested  them,  one  within  an- 
other. Each  one  was  packed  separately,  and  the  result- 
ing freight  charges  were  two  or  three  times  what  they 
ought  to  have  been. 

From  many  letters  received  from  manufacturers  of 
various  kinds  of  furniture  detailing  their  experiences, 
practices  and  policies  in  export  shipping,  the  following 
excerpts  may  be  chosen  as  likely  to  be  of  interest  and 
value. 

General  Household  Furniture. — One  of  the  largest 
firms  specializing  in  shipping  furniture  for  export  sub- 
mits a  number  of  photographs  illustrating  its  practices 
in  export  packing  which  are  reproduced  on  pages  480  and 
491,  and  writes  in  this  connection :  '  *  This  company  makes 
its  own  cases  and  crates  for  export  shipments.  These  are 
built  of  one-inch  lumber,  usually  of  North  Carolina  pine, 
but  birch  or  gumwood  is  sometimes  used.  Lumber  is 
dressed  on  both  sides  so  that  it  is  about  %"  after  planing. 
Both  cases  and  crates  are  lock-cornered — that  is,  they  are 
so  built  that  all  the  nails  go  into  the  edges  of  the  boards 
instead  of  some  going  into  the  ends  of  the  boards.  In 
this  way  boards  are  prevented  from  splitting  or  working 
loose,  and  the  cleating  used  by  some  companies  to  accom- 
plish the  same  end  is  made  unnecessary.  Coated  nails 
are  used  throughout,  as  these  do  not  easily  pull  out. 
Cases  are  strapped  all  around  the  edges  with  %"  straps 
of  high-grade  metal. 

*^When  furniture  is  packed  in  cases  a  bed  of  picked 
excelsior  about  one  inch  or  more  thick,  placed  between 
layers  of  kraft  paper,  is  put  into  the  case  on  at  least  two 
sides.  When  needed,  as  in  cases  of  bedroom,  dining  room, 
living  room,  or  office  furniture,  braces  of  wood  about  an 
inch  thick  are  nailed  to  the  case  across  the  bottom  of  the 
article  that  is  being  packed,  and  also  across  the  front  in 
order  to  hold  it  firmly  against  the  padding  of  excelsior 
at  the  back  and  top.    Two  braces  are  usually  used  across 


PACKING  FURNITURE  501 

the  front,  one  across  the  bottom,  and  other  braces  may  be 
used  where  needed,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ship- 
ment. Often  the  ends  of  the  braces  are  screwed  into  the 
sides  of  the  case,  and  nailed  to  cleats  above  and  below  to 
prevent  splitting.  The  general  purpose  of  bracing  is  to 
keep  the  article  from  shifting,  hold  it  firmly  against  the 
resilient  bed  of  excelsior,  and  protect  it  from  breakage 
by  lifting  it  away  from  the  sides  of  the  case,  so  that  even 
if  the  case  should  be  injured  the  furniture  may  still  be 
safe. 

^'All  cases  are  lined  with  kraft  or  oiled  paper  or  tar- 
paulin, depending  upon  the  country  to  which  they  are 
going.  If  goods  are  to  go  by  muleback  at  the  last  stage 
of  the  journey,  waterproof  paper  or  tarpaulin  is  used, 
so  that  they  may  be  removed  from  the  case  before  loading 
onto  the  animal's  back  and  still  be  protected  from  injury 
by  rain  or  other  causes. 

*^If  furniture  is  packed  tight  enough  in  a  case  or 
crate  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  braces,  but  braces  are 
always  used  unless  the  goods  fit  perfectly.  The  lumber 
used  in  all  of  the  packages  shown  in  the  accompanying 
photographs  is  4/4  North  Carolina  pine,  birch  or  gum- 
wood.  Crates  as  well  as  cases  are  always  iron  strapped 
with  bands  of  from  %"  to  1"  wide,  nailed  with  cement- 
coated  nails.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule  with  us  is 
in  a  few  shipments  to  the  West  Indies  where  it  is  believed 
iron  strapping  is  not  required.*' 

Another  large  shipper  of  furniture  gives  the  follow- 
ing details  referring  to  his  export  packing.  '*  Furniture 
should  be  knocked  down  as  much  as  possible  before  pack- 
ing. Then  it  is  wrapped,  usually  in  heavy  wrapping 
paper,  and  excelsior  pads  are  placed  here  and  there 
around  the  edges,  if  necessary,  to  prevent  rubbing.  The 
furniture  is  then  boxed,  preferably  in  a  strong  case  which 
has  battens  all  around  the  edges.  If  the  furniture  is 
irregular  in  shape,  braces  are  used,  that  is,  strips  of 
wood  three  inches  or  so  wide  are  nailed  across  and  close 
above  parts  of  the  furniture  from  one  side  of  the  case  to 
the  other,  in  order  to  keep  the  article  from  shifting.    For 


502  EXPORT  PACKING 

example,  a  divan  might  have  a  brace  across  the  seat  and 
another  across  the  back.  By  careful  bracing  it  is  some- 
times possible  to  pack  more  than  one  article  in  the  same 
case. 

**  Cases  should  be  used  where  goods  are  going  a  long 
distance,  and  as  an  extra  precaution,  oiled  paper  lining 
is  sometimes  used  inside  to  prevent  moisture  from  pene- 
trating. The  ordinary  casing  is  made  of  lumber  1"  frame 
and  %"  filling.  The  wood  is  planed  on  both  sides — the 
inside  so  that  it  will  not  scratch  the  furniture,  the  outside 
because  it  makes  a  smoother  surface  for  marking.  The 
cases  should  be  strapped  with  iron  strapping  from  1/2" 
to  1"  wide,  according  to  the  size  of  the  case.  These  straps 
are  nailed  all  around  the  edges  of  the  case.  When  furni- 
ture is  shipped  overland  by  muleback  it  may  be  packed 
either  in  bales  or  cases,  depending  on  whether  duty  is 
paid  by  gross  weight  or  not.  It  is  also  sometimes  neces- 
sary to  use  tarpaulin  in  order  to  protect  the  goods  from 
rain  storms.  Sometimes  oiled  paper  is  used  inside  in- 
stead of,  or  in  addition  to,  the  tarpaulin. 

*^When  furniture  contains  glass,  special  care  is,  of 
course,  necessary.  As  a  rule,  glass  should  have  two  strips 
of  paper  in  the  form  of  an  X  pasted  from  corner  to  cor- 
ner. .  When  glass  is  packed  separately,  the  best  method 
is  as  follows :  If  more  than  one  layer  of  glass  is  to  go  in 
the  case,  paper  is  laid  between  them,  and  excelsior  is 
stuffed  between  the  glass  and  the  sides  of  the  case.  This 
case  is  then  put  inside  another  case,  which  is  filled  with 
excelsior.     (See  chapter  on  the  packing  of  glass.) 

^^To  nearby  countries  crates  are  frequently  used  in- 
stead of  cases.  The  crates  are  made  of  lumber  with  1" 
frame  and  1/2"  to  %"  filling,  the  boards  of  the  crating 
being  from  four  to  six  inches  apart.  The  furniture  is 
braced,  just  as  when  packed  in  cases,  and  the  crates 
should  be  iron  strapped  in  the  same  way.  Wicker  furni- 
ture, being  less  breakable  than  other  kinds,  is  generally 
packed  in  crates,  unless  it  can  be  completely  knocked 
down,  in  which  case  the  parts  may  be  baled  or  boxed. 

'*  Baling  is  done  with  burlap  and  excelsior,  the  burlap 


(.niiihsji    nj     \iilni     Jdlkni!/    MtichiHi     (0. 

Method  of  Packing  Small  Phonographs. 

Victrola  and  outfit  hox  arc  icrappcd  together  in  paper  and  tied.  Layer  oj 
four  machines  placed  in  cane  tightly  embedded  in  excelsior.  Note  additional 
batten  placed  around  the  middle  of  closed  case.     (Series  2.) 


Courtesy  of  Victor  Talking  Machine  Co. 

Medium    Sized   Phonograph   Placed   in   Case. 

Needle  box,  sample  needles  and  sound  box  tacked  to  motor  board,  turn  tables 
and  winding  key  separately  wrapped.  The  victrola  in  waxed  paper  tightly  em- 
bedded in  case  with  excelsior.     Packing  case  firmly  strapped.      (Series  S.) 

503 


Courtesy  of  Victor  Talking  Machine  Co. 
Packing  of  Large  Type  Phonograph. 

Instrument  after  locking  and  wrapping  of  taper  tube  is  placed  on  skid.  Note 
that  cleats  do  not  rest  on  machine  owing  to  use  of  corks.  Machine  is  firmly 
held  in  case  by  screws  driven  through  the  sides  into  skids.     (Series  4.) 


Courtesy  of  Hemington  Typewriter  Co. 
Method  of  Packing  Typewriter. 

Machine  is  firmly  attached  to  case  cover  by  means  of  a  cradle  and  is  placed 
in  case  upside  doirn.  Empty  cradle  shoicn.  Note  that  lettering  on  case  is 
inverted,  in  packing;  the  case  is  turned  bottom  side  up  and  typewriter  cradle 
attached  to  bottom  cover  of  case. 

504 


PACKING  FURNITURE  505 

being  laid  out,  spread  with  excelsior  to  a  depth  of  five 
or  six  inches  or  more,  according  to  the  article  that  is  to 
be  packed,  then  brought  up  over  the  furniture  and  sewed 
tightly.  Baling  is  advisable  only  for  very  nearby  coun- 
tries, or  when  the  article  can  be  completely  knocked  down 
or  is  so  inexpensive  that  the  price  of  casing  would  be  dis- 
proportionate to  its  value,  and  where  duties  are  paid  by 
weight. ' ' 

Packing  of  Office  Furniture. — A  large  manufacturer 
of  office  furniture  has  developed  what  he  believes  is 
adequate  and  satisfactory  export  packing.  This  manu- 
facturer writes :  ^^When  it  is  considered  that  merchandise 
that  is  destined  for  foreign  lands  undergoes  in  a  great 
many  instances  the  roughest  possible  handling,  there 
should  be  no  wonder  that  we  give  the  matter  of  packing 
for  export  our  very  careful  study. 

^'Both  wood  and  steel  cabinets  as  well  as  desks  are 
first  carefully  wrapped  in  either  oiled  paper  or  kraft 
paper  (an  absolutely  waterproof  paper).  Boxing  is  then 
prepared  allowing  a  good  distance  all  around  the  cabinet 
for  packing  with  excelsior.  The  casing  is  then  built  up 
as  rigid  and  strong  as  possible ;  the  ends  of  each  box  are 
reinforced  and  all  stock  is  Ys"- 

*^0n  the  average  sized  cases  we  use  two  iron  bands, 
but  when  the  boxes  are  extra  large,  three  bands  are  used. 
These  bands  are  the  strongest  protection  we  know  of  and 
are  drawn  up  exceptionally  tight  by  means  of  clamps, 
both  ends  being  held  with  automatic  fasteners. 

^*The  cases  are  very  carefully  marked  with  the  net 
and  gross  weights  on  the  outside,  and  in  cases  where 
goods  are  to  be  forwarded  through  New  York  forwarding 
houses,  the  foreign  address  is  covered  by  a  small  board, 
which  is  lightly  nailed  to  the  case,  and  bears  the  address 
of  the  forwarder.'' 

Another  house  doing  a  large  business  in  furniture 
made  of  steel  and  wood  sends  drawings  of  its  export 
packages  (see  page  509)  and  states  that  in  the  construc- 
tion of  its  crates,  **We  use  elm  and  hemlock  lumber  1" 
and  1%"  thick  fastened  with  8-penny  and  10-penny  nails. 


506  EXPORT  PACKING 

The  cabinets  are  wrapped  with  double  thickness  of  gray 
express  paper  before  being  put  into  the  crates  and  padded 
with  6"  excelsior  pads  on  corners  and  wherever  necessary 
to  prevent  contact  between  crate  and  cabinet. 

*'In  crating,  a  bottom  frame  is  built  and  the  cabinet 
is  then  placed  on  this  frame;  then  the  top  frame  is  built 
and  placed  on  top  of  the  cabinet,  resting  on  the  excelsior 
pads  mentioned  above.  The  sides  are  then  nailed  on  the 
crate,  after  which  braces  are  put  on,  also  6"  metal  boxing 
strips.  The  diagonal  braces  are  used  to  prevent  racking 
of  the  cabinet  when  it  is  handled  by  derricks  or  hoists  in 
and  out  of  the  ship.  This  is  practically  unnecessary  on 
anything  but  export  shipments,  as  this  method  of  han- 
dling is  confined  almost  exclusively  to  export  shipments. ' ' 

A  large  shipper  of  office  desks  declares  in  a  letter  that 
the  greatest  requirement  in  export  shipping  is  that  boxes 
be  rigid  and  not  subject  to  distortion  and  consequent 
injury  to  the  contents.  *^We  reenforce  top  and  bottom  of 
our  cases  with  two  cross  pieces  and  use  tight  boxes  of 
13/16"  chestnut  matched  lumber.  We  use  sufficient  quan- 
tities of"  paper  and  excelsior  to  keep  all  surfaces  of  the 
desks  away  from  the  boards  of  the  cases.  The  great 
point,  however,  is  that  the  cases  be  rigid. '* 

Upholstered  Furniture. — A  prominent  New  York 
house  which  has  shipped  a  great  deal  of  expensive 
upholstered  furniture  to  various  export  markets  sends 
photographs,  which  are  reproduced  on  pages  492  and  497, 
and  a  letter  stating  that  packages  are  generally  made  up 
in  accordance  with  customers'  specifications.  This  house 
believes  that,  in  general,  a  crate  is  as  satisfactory  for 
overseas  shipments  as  a  case,  and  its  customers,  many  of 
whom  are  in  South  American  countries,  frequently 
specify  crates  in  order  to  save  weight.  The  wood  used 
is  1"  pine.  The  crates  are  lined  with  oiled  paper  and 
layers  of  the  same  are  placed  between  each  part  of  each 
article.  Heavy  pads  of  excelsior  are  used  between  each 
part  of  each  piece  of  furniture  to  prevent  rubbing,  and 
the  pads  are  also  used  to  protect  against  abrasion  with 
outside  case.    A  general  idea  of  the  packing  supplied  by 


PACKING  FURNITURE  507 

this  house  will  be  further  gathered  from  the  photographs 
to  which  reference  is  made. 

Export  Packing  of  Pianos. — The  man  whose  ideas  of 
piano  transportation  are  limited  to  the  padded  vans  one 
sees  in  the  city  streets,  and  who  has  noted  the  extreme 
care  with  which  these  costly  instruments  are  carried  from 
van  to  house  and  finally  placed  in  the  music  room  or 
drawing  room,  need  only  look  at  the  illustration  on  page 
497,  made  from  a  photograph  taken  by  Mr.  Harry  A. 
Franck^,  that  accompanies  this  text,  to  realize  that  he  has 
only  seen  part  of  the  travels  of  the  piano.  This  photo- 
graph is  really  a  commentary  on  any  export  package  and 
should  be  studied  and  remembered  by  anyone  interested 
in  the  pilgrimage  of  foreign  shipments. 

The  name  of  the  factory  manufacturing  the  piano 
illustrated  by  Mr.  Franck  we  do  not  know,  but  we  hope 
that  this  factory  had  some  idea  of  transportation  in 
South  America  and  of  the  severity  of  the  mountain  voy- 
age of  a  once  sweet-toned  instrument.  For,  if  the  factory 
did  not  know  and  if  it  packed  this  piano  without  knowl- 
edge of  the  elements  entering  into  the  problem,  it 
requires  no  imagination  to  picture  the  disappointment  of 
the  owner  and  his  feeling  toward  American-made  goods. 
The  man  who  first  of  all  makes  a  considerable  expendi- 
ture for  a  piano,  then  performs  the  task  of  having  it 
brought  to  some  West  Coast  port,  and  then  gets  together 
the  small  army  that  is  going  to  carry  that  piano  into  the 
fastnesses  of  the  mountains,  is  thirsty  for  the  delights 
of  haitnony,  and  if  he  does  not  get  them,  but  in  place 
receives  a  mass  of  swollen  felts  and  rusted  wires,  his 
feelings  are  going  to  be  quite  intense. 

The  manufacture  of  the  piano,  like  that  of  most 
musical  instruments,  has  been  brought  to  a  state  of 
excellence  in  the  United  States  that  permits  world-wide 
competition  with  the  instruments  manufactured  in 
Europe,  and  in  the  case  of  pianos  one  American  manu- 
facturer has  the  honor  of  having  his  instruments  selected 

*  Reproduced  from  ' '  Vagabonding  Down  the  Andes, ' '  by  permission  of 
The  Century  Co. 


508  EXPORT  PACKING 

the  world  over  for  their  excellence  and  high  standard. 

A  well  known  manufacturer  described  verbally  to  the 
writer  his  method  of  export  packing  as  follows:  The 
export  package  does  not  differ  from  the  domestic  pack- 
age except  that  the  export  package  is  tin  lined  and  her- 
metically sealed.  In  both  packages  the  piano  rests  on 
strips  of  wood  which  float  it  as  if  it  were  in  the  middle  of 
the  case,  the  piano  being  securely  fastened  to  the  wood 
strips.  These  strips  in  turn  are  wedged  so  that  there  is 
no  possibility  of  their  slipping,  the  whole  making  a  rigid, 
solid  export  package. 

A  compartment  is  provided  for  the  legs  and  lyre, 
and  the  piano  is  placed  in  the  case  or  removed  by 
lifting  it  in  a  horizontal  position.  The  package  is  so 
designed  as  to  provide  a  minimum  of  labor  in  unpacking. 
The  manufacturer  states  that:  '^ These  packages  have 
been  successfully  transported  to  all  parts  of  the  world 
and  are  the  result  of  many  years'  careful  study  of  the 
requirements  of  export." 

Another  manufacturer  of  pianos  writes  that  his  boxes 
are  made  of  lumber  1"  thick  with  three  battens  4  inches 
wide  carried  around  the  entire  box,  the  corners  being 
fastened  with  iron  angles.  There  are  two  additional 
4"xl%''  battens  at  each  end  on  the  back  of  the  box 
which  is  iron-strapped  all  around.  The  interior  packing 
involves  the  use  of  two  padded  strips,  one  at  each  end 
between  the  end  of  the  piano  and  the  box,  and  a  padded 
stretcher  running  the  entire  length  of  the  box  against 
the  side  below  the  key-bed.  This  is  fastened  with  a  cleat. 
In  addition  there  are  two  corner  posts  2"x2"  screwed 
through  the  end  and  front  of  the  box  and  extending  from 
the  key-bottom  downward  to  the  bottom  of  the  box. 

A  third  piano  manufacturer  sends  a  letter  stating  that 
the  bottoms  of  his  export  cases  are  reenforced  by  skids 
running  the  full  length;  there  are  inside  cleats  and  an 
extra  cleat  running  around  outside  of  the  box  in  the 
middle.  All  cases  are  lined  inside  with  waterproof  paper 
and  nailed  with  10-penny  cement-coated  nails.  Instead 
of    four    lag    screws    usually    employed,    one    in    each 


Courtesy  of  Hamilton  Mfg.  Co. 
Crate  for  Printer's  Imposing  Table. 
Notice  solid  construction  of  crate  and  diagonal  bracing. 


Courtesy  of  Hamilton  Mfg.  Co. 

Crate  for  Printer's  Cabinets. 

CaMnets  are  wrapped   tcith   double  thickness  of  paper  and  padded  with  I 
excelsior  pads. 


509 


Courtesy  0/  National  Cash  Register  Co. 
Packing   of  Cash  Register. 
Machine  and  accessories  ready  to  be  placed  in  case. 


Courtesy  of  National  Cash  Register  Oo. 

Method  of  Fastening  Cash  Register  in  Case. 

Machine  is   covered   with   waterproof   cloth.     Braces    are   placed   to   remove 
pressure  from  front  of  case. 

510 


PACKING  FURNITURE  511 

corner,  this  manufacturer  uses  eight  screws  4i4''x%", 
two  in  each  corner,  passing  through  the  back  of  the  l30x 
into  the  back  of  the  piano. 

It  is  to  be  noted  in  this  connection  that  foreign 
importers  of  American  pianos  have  sometimes  com- 
plained that  as  cases  containing  pianos,  as  well  as  other 
commodities,  are  often  turned  upside  down  in  handling, 
if  only  two  lag  screw  bolts  are  used  the  pianos  frequently 
break  away  and  are  seriously  damaged.  The  greatest 
possible  care  ought  to  be  taken  in  securing  and  in  other- 
wise thoroughly  bracing  pianos  within  export  boxes. 

Packing  of  Billiard  Tables. — A  large  company  manu- 
facturing billiard  tables  which  has  exported  its  products 
for  many  years  writes  in  regard  to  its  export  packing  as 
follows:  **The  bed  of  every  billiard  table  consists  of 
three  slabs  of  slate  of  equal  size  usually  from  1"  to  IV2" 
thick.  We  pack  these  slabs  of  slate  two  in  one  case  and 
one  in  another,  unless  they  are  thicker  than  li/o"  and 
then  each  slab  is  placed  in  a  separate  case.  Three  inches 
of  excelsior  are  laid  on  the  bottom  of  the  case,  on  top  of 
that  the  slate,  followed  by  three  inches  more  of  excelsior 
on  top.  When  two  slate  slabs  are  packed  in  one  case 
they  are  laid  face  to  face  on  top  of  each  other.  Three 
inches  of  excelsior  are  also  stuffed  between  the  edges  of 
the  slabs  and  the  sides  of  the  box  so  that  they  are  thor- 
oughly protected  all  around.  We  use  extra  heavy  cases  of 
2"  lumber  screwed  together.  In  addition  to  the  two  cases 
in  which  the  slate  bed  is  packed,  two  more  cases  are 
required  for  each  billiard  table.  The  tables  are  shipped 
knocked  down,  one  case  containing  the  two  ends,  each 
with  two  legs  attached.  The  two  ends  are  placed  on  top 
of  each  other  with  the  two  pairs  of  legs  in  opposite 
directions,  forming  a  hollow  square  which  fits  tight  into 
the  case;  the  second  case  contains  the  broad-rails,  cush- 
ion rails,  cues  and  remainder  of  the  equipment." 

Floor  Lamps. — A  large  New  York  exporter  of  novel- 
ties and  specialties  sends  the  excellent  photograph  (see 
page  498)  illustrating  packing  of  a  floor  lamp  about 
six  feet  in  height.     It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  lamp  is 


512  EXPORT  PACKING 

padded  with  excelsior  and  paper  and  that  a  closely  fitting 
crate  tapering  at  the  top  is  made  especially  to  fit  it.  If 
more  than  one  lamp  is  to  be  forwarded  in  a  single  ship- 
ment, from  two  to  four  may  be  packed  in  a  crate,  alter- 
nate lamps  being  packed  reversed,  the  top  of  one  tied  to 
the  foot  of  its  neighbor.  The  lamp  shades  are  packed  sep- 
arately in  cardboard  boxes  suitably  crated. 

Talking  Machines. — Among  the  American  industries 
that  have  made  unusual  progress  in  export  the  talking 
machine  manufacturers  are  notable,  for  throughout  the 
world  the  excellence  of  the  American  made  machine  is 
recognized  and  this,  together  with  the  unusual  repertoire 
offered,  places  the  product  in  a  distinguished  position. 

The  packing  of  this  instrument  offers  a  number  of 
angles  that  are  also  characteristic  of  other  lines  described 
in  this  book.  We  have  first  the  necessity  of  protecting 
the  fine  cabinetwork  of  the  talking  machine  for,  with  ma- 
chines valued  at  times  at  several  hundred  dollars  each, 
it  is  paramount  that  the  merchandise  be  received  without 
blemish,  and  in  addition  to  the  usual  requirements  of 
careful  protection  from  friction  and  abrasion  we  have 
the  necessity  for  complete  protection  against  moisture. 

In  describing  its  export  packing  a  company  doing  a 
large  international  business  submits  a  number  of  highly 
interesting  photographs,  shown  on  pages  498,  503  and 
504,  with  captions  briefly  describing  each  style  of  packing 
which  may  be  more  adequately  explained  as  follows :  In 
Series  No.  1  the  corrugated  board  boxes  each  containing 
25  records  are  wrapped  in  kraft  paper  and  finally  in 
waxed  paper,  the  flaps  sealed  with  sealing  tape,  making 
each  package  practically  moisture  proof.  The  packing 
case  itself  is  lined  with  a  waxed  paper,  divided  near  the 
center  with  a  wood  head  nailed  through  the  side  of  the 
box;  in  each  end  of  the  case  are  placed  several  pieces  of 
corrugated  board  and  any  empty  space  remaining,  be- 
cause of  the  varying  thickness  of  different  records,  which 
makes  it  impossible  to  supply  cases  which  will  exactly 
fit,  is  filled  with  a  second  inside  wood  head  and  excelsior 
stuffing.    The  case  itself  is  made  of  %"  yellow  pine  lum- 


PACKING  FURNITURE  513 

ber  tongned  and  grooved,  the  ends  fully  battened  with 
3/4"x2i4"  strips  and  the  case  is  iron  strapped  all  around. 

In  the  illustration  of  packing  Series  No.  2,  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  above  the  first  layer  of  machines  are  cleats  to 
hold  the  instruments  solidly.  This  case  is  made  of  the 
same  size  lumber  as  that  just  previously  described,  but 
it  is  to  be  noted  that  there  is  an  additional  batten  around 
the  middle  of  the  case  to  prevent  spreading.  In  packing 
Series  No.  3,  a  case  with  sides,  bottom  and  top  of  %", 
yellow  pine  tongued  and  grooved  is  employed,  the  ends 
being  made  of  %"  yellow  pine  fully  battened  with 
34"x2y2"  strips. 

Packing  Series  No.  4  presents  several  very  interesting 
features  which  are  deserving  of  notice  by  exporters  of 
all  kinds  of  furniture.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  motor, 
turn-table,  etc.,  of  this  machine  are  packed  in  a  separate 
corrugated  board  box  which  is  placed  in  the  open  space 
underneath  the  machine  between  the  legs.  It  is  then  to 
be  noted  that  the  instrument  itself  is  mounted  on  a  sub- 
stantial skid  to  prevent  the  legs  touching  the  bottom  of 
the  case.  Cleats  are  used  which  completely  surround  the 
machine  at  the  top  but  are  prevented  from  touching- the 
machine  by  corks  inserted  in  the  cleats.  These  corks  are 
coated  with  paraffin  to  prevent  damage  to  the  finish  of 
the  machine  by  rubbing  and  friction.  The  lid  is  held 
tightly  in  place  by  two  clamps  fastened  to  the  guard  rails 
surrounding  the  top  of  the  instrument,  and  the  whole 
upper  cleated  structure  is  fastened  to  the  skid  on  which 
the  machine  rests  by  means  of  two  strips  down  the  sides. 
It  should  be  observed  that  none  of  this  cleating  actually 
touches  the  finish  of  the  machine.  It  is  used  to  prevent 
the  instrument  coming  in  contact  with  the  packing  case. 
The  latter  is  built  of  five-ply  veneer  with  a  total  thickness 
of  approximately  i/o",  making  it  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses puncture  proof.  The  resulting  box  is  fully  bat- 
tened with  %"x2"  strips.  On  the  top  of  the  case  a  tri- 
angular piece  of  lumber  is  nailed  and  strapped  on  in  the 
effort  to  prevent  the  turning  upside  down  of  the  instru- 
ment.   The  machine  is  held  firmly  in  place  in  the  case  by 


514  EXPORT  PACKING 

means  of  screws  driven  through  the  sides  of  the  box  into 
the  sides  of  the  skid  which  supports  the  machine.  The 
upper  part  of  the  cleated  structure  is  not  fastened  to  the 
packing  case,  thus  allowing  the  instrument  to  move 
slightly  and  be  relieved  from  much  of  the  shock  should 
the  box  be  roughly  handled. 

Export  Packing  of  Typewriters. — The  typewriter  is 
a  peculiarly  American  invention  and  is  one  of  that  great 
category  of  labor-saving  devices  that  characterize  the 
development  of  American  business.  With  a  simple  ma- 
chine to  merchandise  and  one  with  an  enormous  potential 
consumer  demand  throughout  the  entire  world,  the  type- 
writer companies  were  early  in  the  foreign  field,  and  sev- 
eral of  them  have  developed  an  export  package  of  excel- 
lent value  from  the  standpoint  of  portability  and  security. 

We  illustrate  this  chapter  with  a  photograph  (see 
page  504)  of  the  export  package  of  a  well  known  company 
and  it  is  to  be  noted  that  in  this  case  the  typewriter  is 
attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  case.  When  the  box  is 
upright  the  typewriter  is  resting  on  the  floor  of  the 
case,  and  this  method  of  packing  also  greatly  facilitates 
the^opening  of  the  case  and  the  removal  of  the  machine. 
Describing  this  package,  our  correspondent  writes  us: 
**  Typewriters  for  export  shipment  are  packed  in  strong 
wooden  boxes.  These  boxes  are  made  of  %"  material 
and  the  four  sides  are  mortised  together.  Grooves  are 
cut  in  two  opposite  sides  of  the  box  providing  a  hold  by 
means  of  which  the  box  is  readily  handled.  In  the  case 
of  Russian  shipments,  however,  rope  handles  are  also 
provided  on  two  opposite  sides  of  the  box.  The  cover  of 
the  box  is  provided  on  the  outside  with  two  hardwood 
strips  2"x%",  to  which  the  machine  is  securely  fastened. 
Two  other  hardwood  strips  l"x%"  are  placed  across  the 
top  near  the  sides  to  further  strengthen  it. 

**  When  the  machine  is  received  in  the  packing  depart- 
ment, all  nickel  plated  parts  and  others  not  protected  by 
a  rust  proof  finish  are  given  a  coat  of  grease  to  prevent 
rusting.  All  moving  parts  are  then  tied  securely  in  place 
by  means  of  I/2"  white  tape.    Twelve  such  ties  are  made. 


Courtesy  of  l^UitioHul  Cash  Register  Co. 


Final  Packing   of  Cash  Register. 
Open  space  filled  with  excelsior;  top  ix  fastened   by  means  of  strews. 


Courtesy  of  National  Cash  Register  Co. 
Completed  Case  Containing  Cash  Register. 
Note  iron  straps  placed  on  bottom  and  rear  of  case. 
515 


516 


PACKING  FURNITURE  517 

A  cardboard  type  bar  retainer,  oiled  to  prevent  rust,  is 
then  forced  in  position  to  hold  the  bars  in  place.  A  box 
cover  is  then  obtained  by  the  packer  and  turned  upside 
down  on  his  bench.  This  cover  has  previously  had 
attached  to  it,  by  bolts  and  washers  through  the  hard- 
w^ood  strips,  two  springs  made  of  1%"  wide  steel  and 
about  i/s"  thick.  These  springs  are  13"  wide.  A  base 
board  of  hardwood  is  placed  in  position  on  these  springs 
and  the  typew^riter  with  wooden  feet  inserted  is  placed  in 
position  on  the  base  board.  Holes  are  provided  in  the 
base  board  into  which  the  feet  fit.  A  wooden  saddle  or 
packing  piece,  cut  to  the  proper  shape,  is  next  placed 
across  the  front  and  one  across  the  back  of  the  top  plate. 
The  wood  packing  piece  across  the  front  is  prevented 
fi"om  marring  the  enamel  by  means  of  *  packing  buttons.' 
These  buttons  are  a  concave  piece  of  metal,  circular  in 
shape,  and  are  provided  with  a  small  key  or  feather 
which  projects  from  the  convex  side.  This  key  fits  into 
the  slot  of  the  top  plate  screw  and  holds  the  wood  away 
from  contact  with  the  enamel.  The  rear  packing  piece 
is  prevented  from  marring  the  enamel  by  means  of  small 
pieces  of  felt  placed  between  the  wood  and  the  top  plate. 
These  packing  pieces  are  tied  to  the  spring  beneath  the 
base  board  by  means  of  a  steel  tie  rod  at  each  end.  These 
are  tightened  up  by  means  of  a  nut.  The  front  and  rear 
saddles  are  tied  together  by  means  of  a  metal  strip  at 
each  side  of  the  typewriter.  Thus  we  see  that  the  ma- 
chine is  now  securely  fastened  to  the  springs  attached  to 
the  under  side  of  the  box  cover. 

**The  whole  machine  is  now  completely  wrapped  in 
a  heavy  oiled  paper.  Over  this  paper  is  placed  the  metal 
cover  for  the  typew^riter  and  this  is  fastened  in  place  on 
the  base  board  of  the  machine.  On  the  inside  of  the  box 
are  fastened  by  means  of  white  tape,  the  accessory  box, 
ribbon  and  instructions.  The  box  cover  is  next  inverted 
over  the  box  and  dropped  into  place,  thus  placing  the 
machine  inside  of  the  box.  The  cover  is  fastened  in  place 
with  screw  nails  so  that  it  may  readily  be  removed  with 
the  aid  of  a  screw  driver." 


518  EXPORT  PACKING 

Packing  of  Cash  Registers. — Cash  registers  may  be 
fairly  classed  among  that  very  unique  group  of  export 
goods  known  as  ^* American  specialties/'  This  class  of 
commodities  frequently  enjoys  a  world-wide  market  and 
they  are  recognized  everywhere  as  a  product  essentially 
of  American  genius  and  enterprise.  Certain  of  these 
lines,  like  the  cash  register,  are  inventions  of  relatively 
very  recent  date  and  yet  the  development  of  the  machine 
itself  and  the  development  of  the  world  market  have  been 
little  short  of  phenomenal.  At  first  the  cash  register  was 
a  simple  piece  of  mechanism  and  it  was  designed  to  serve 
a  single  purpose,  but  the  latest  machines  are  capable  of 
most  complex  operations  in  bookkeeping  and  accounting. 

American  specialties  have  consistently  sought  the  for- 
eign market,  and  in  the  case  of  the  best  known  manufac- 
turer of  cash  registers  the  normal  export  shipments 
amount  to  more  than  60,000  machines  a  year  and  the  for- 
eign business  is  taken  care  of  by  an  army  of  salesmen  and 
agencies.  The  story  that  could  be  written  of  these  spe- 
cialties would  make  a  most  interesting  account  of  export 
expansion,  and  indicates  what  the  right  sort  of  effort  can 
do  when  backed  by  the  proper  merchandise  and  selling 
ability. 

The  illustrations  on  pages  510,  515  and  516  have 
been  supplied  by  a  well  known  manufacturer  and 
deserve  study  with  their  explanatory  captions.  It  may 
be  noted  that  the  packing  cases  employed  are  made  of  V 
maple  and  are  supplied  to  the  packing  department  com- 
plete with  cleats  and  braces  in  position.  The  machine 
is  protected  with  waterproof  cloth  and  the  base  covered 
with  heavy  cardboard;  open  spaces  are  filled  with  ex- 
celsior. The  lids  are  screwed  on,  greatly  facilitating  the 
removal  of  machines  from  cases  and  leaving  cases  intact 
so  that  customers  may  use  them  for  other  purposes  if 
desired.  Attention  should  be  drawn  to  the  iron  straps 
on  bottom  and  rear  of  case.  These  are  the  points  toward 
which  the  weight  is  thrown  and  are  therefore  strapped. 
This  company  does  not  regard  straps  as  necessary  on 
other  parts  of  the  case. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
PACKING  OF  TINNED  GOODS 

THEORETICALLY  the  packing  of  fluids  in  cans 
would  seem  to  be  an  ideal  condition  with  which  to 
deal,  for  here  we  have  containers  of  a  shape  that 
admits  of  standard  cases  and  the  containers  themselves 
are  far  from  fragile.  However,  the  packing  of  goods  of 
this  sort,  to  obtain  the  best  results,  is  by  no  means  simple, 
and,  like  every  other  problem  of  export  packing,  the 
work  requires  study  and  experimentation. 

A  good  many  things  may  happen  to  canned  goods  that 
are  not  well  packed  and  protected.  Poorly  nailed  cases 
mean  punctured  containers,  weak  crates  or  boxes  mean 
as  a  rule  that  the  customer  is  not  going  to  receive  his 
goods,  and  it  is  astonishing  what  can  happen  to  a  case  of 
canned  goods  when  the  cans  are  not  protected  against 
crushing  strains  that  may  in  turn  be  due  to  a  variety  of 
causes. 

Commodities  packed  in  tins  are  almost  innumerable 
in  variety,  including  not  only  liquids  and  pastes,  but  also 
powders  and  solids.  Commonest  among  such  shipments 
are  to  be  noted  paints,  tinned  fruits  and  vegetables,  fish 
and  meats,  biscuit,  pharmaceutical  products,  oils,  etc.  It 
is  found  necessary  to  pack  many  commodities  in  tins  for 
export  purposes,  when  pasteboard  or  wood  cartons  are 
ample  for  domestic  shipment.  This  occurs  both  because 
of  additional  protection  required  for  such  commodities 
in  transport  overseas,  and  because  of  the  perishable 
nature  of  some  commodities  in  more  trying  climates  than 
our  own.  Cereals  and  biscuit  must  be  packed  in  tin  to 
prevent  spoiling  by  tropical  moisture,  and  to  guard 
against  the  entrance  of  worms  and  weevils.  If  these  com- 
modities, dried  fruit,  or  other  provisions  of  a  perishable 
nature,  are  not  packed  in  tin,  they  rapidly  become  rancid, 

519 


520  EXPORT  PACKING 

decayed  or  moldy  in  many  countries  to  which  they  are 
shipped ;  they  may  be  affected  by  long  salt  water  voyages 
or  by  the  long  dry  or  wet  seasons  which  prevail  in  tropical 
and  semi-tropical  countries,  ranging  from  Central  and 
South  America  to  India,  Africa  and  Southern  China. 

One  feature  of  the  export  packing  of  tinned  good^ 
which  should  receive  more  adequate  attention  than  here- 
tofore has  been  the  case,  is  the  waste  of  space,  or  exces- 
sive sizes  of  packages,  and  consequent  heavy  freight 
charges,  involved  in  the  shipment  of  round  tins  when 
square  tins  holding  the  same  quantities  might  be  packed ; 
square  tins  mean  reduction  of  cubic  measurements  and 
consequently  smaller  export  packages.  This  point  is 
brought  out  in  a  letter  from  a  large  export  house  shipping 
chiefly  to  Japan,  which  points  to  the  considerable  loss  of 
money  which  has  occurred  during  the  last  three  or  four 
years  when  freight  rates  have  ruled  exorbitantly  high 
as  compared  with  rates  before  the  war.  Square  contain- 
ers, this  firm  believes,  are  far  more  satisfactory  than  are 
round  tins,  although  comparatively  few  manufacturers 
or  shippers  appear  as  yet  to  have  recognized  their  im- 
portant advantages.  It  would  seem  that  there  need  be 
no  insuperable  obstacles  in  the  way  of  any  large  manu- 
facturer securing  square  tins  at  comparatively  econom- 
ical costs,  and  any  shipper  doing  a  large  volume  of  export 
business  might  rapidly  forge  to  the  front,  as  a  leading 
supplier  of  his  particular  merchandise,  through  the  vQvy 
large  economies  he  would  be  able  to  show  to  his  cus- 
tomers in  other  parts  of  the  world  by  reducing  the  cubic 
measurements  of  his  export  cases. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  matter  of  this  chapter, 
the  following  specifications,  issued  by  the  General  En- 
gineer Depot  of  the  United  States  Army,  may  be  noted : 
*' When  tin  containers  for  oils,  paints  and  liquids  are  used 
they  shall  be  of  heavy  sheets,  well  made,  rectangular  in 
shape,  hermetically  sealed,  and  securely  packed  in  boxes 
or  crates,  with  wood  partitions  between  the  containers. 
Containers  will  not  exceed  5  gallons  in  capacity.  Pack 
two  5-gallon  containers  in  one  box  or  crate.'' 


PACKING  OF  TINNED  GOODS  521 

Export  Packing  of  Paints.— American  manufacturers 
of  paints  were  careful  during  the  war  to  take  advantage, 
so  far  as  their  national  obligation  permitted,  of  the 
export  opportunity  offered  them,  and  it  is  believed  that 
much  of  the  gain  made  is  going  to  be  held.  Several  con- 
cerns will  not  lose  their  foreign  trade  if  care  and  careful 
planning  can  preserve  it,  and  these  concerns,  without 
exception,  are  making  sure  that  their  goods  arrive  in 
satisfactory  shape  at  destination. 

A  well-known  manufacturing  concern  which  has 
shipped  its  products  overseas  for  many  years  past  sends 
several  photographs  (shown  on  pages  523,  524),  and  com- 
ments on  its  policy  and  practice  in  packing  for  export 
as  follows:  ** Paint  is  packed  in  cylindrical  tin  cans. 
Gallons  and  half- gallons  are  packed  in  ream-top  cans, 
which  are  sealed  thus:  a  thin,  round  piece  of  tin  is  laid 
over  the  top  of  the  can,  the  edge  of  the  tin  projecting 
about  ^/4"  beyond  the  edge  of  the  can.  The  can  is  then 
spun  rapidly  around  by  means  of  a  machine  with  wheels, 
which  press  against  the  projecting  edge  of  tin,  turning 
the  edge  over  on  itself  twice  in  a  double  seam,  and  jam- 
ming it  tight  against  the  can.  The  speed  with  which  the 
can  is  spun  makes  the  paint  whirl  up  to  the  top,  where  it 
sticks  to  the  side  of  the  can,  making  the  cover  air-tight. 
This  process  requires  great  care,  for  if  the  can  is  not 
spun  fast  enough,  the  paint  will  not  rise  to  the  top,  while 
if  it  is  spun  too  fast,  the  paint  will  spill.  A  friction-top 
can,  in  which  quarts,  pints  and  half-pints  are  packed,  has 
a  plug-like  cover,  which  sets  down  tightly  into  the  top  of 
the  can.  This  kind  of  top  is  used  for  small  cans  because 
it  can  be  pried  off  and  is  therefore  uninjured  by  opening, 
making  it  possible  to  keep  the  can  covered  as  long  as  the 
paint  lasts.  The  ream-top  can,  however,  cannot  be  opened 
except  by  cutting,  and  is  therefore  used  only  for  the 
larger  tins,  which  are  bought  by  people  who  use  a  great 
deal  of  paint  in  such  a  short  time  that  it  has  no  chance  to 
skin  over. 

"Pictures  B  and  C  show  paint  in  cases.  In  each  pic- 
ture the  case  at  the  left  contains  6  one-gallon  cans;  the 


522  EXPORT  PACKING 

one  in  the  middle  contains  12  half -gallons  (packed  in  two 
layers) ;  the  one  at  the  right  contains  24  quarter-gallons 
(packed  in  two  layers).  Notice  that  each  of  these  cases 
contains  6  gallons  of  paint,  although  the  size  of  the  can 
varies  in  each  instance.  Five-gallon  cans  of  paint  are, 
however,  usually  packed  one  in  a  case  because  paint  is 
so  heavy.  The  purpose  of  the  packers  is  not  to  have 
more  than  100  pounds  weight  in  any  case,  especially  for 
shipments  to  South  America,  where  the  last  stage  of  the 
journey  is  usually  by  muleback.  Occasionally,  however, 
as  much  as  50  gallons  of  paint  are  packed  together;  in 
such  cases — usually  for  mining  companies  or  other  large 
customers — a  barrel  is  used. 

^  ^  Cans  are  prevented  from  rubbing  against  each  other 
by  means  of  wooden  partitions  between  rows,  but  no 
wood  is  laid  between  the  layers.  To  fill  up  the  spaces, 
sawdust  is  shaken  into  the  case.  In  one  respect,  picture 
C  is  misleading :  crates  are  never  used  for  packing  paint ; 
those  shown  in  the  picture  contain  empty  cans  as  they 
are  sent  to  the  factory  for  filling.  The  lettering  on  the 
ends  of  the  cases  is  burned  into  the  wood.  Firm  and 
brand  names  are  put  on  in  this  way,  but  the  number 
referring  to  color  and  the  statement  of  quantity  (as  *2 — 
5  gln^s  cans' — see  picture  A)  also  gross  and  net  weights 
in  pounds  and  kilos,  are  stenciled.  Cases  are  strapped 
with  iron  two  or  three  inches  from  each  end,  and  the 
straps  are  fastened  with  a  small  piece  of  metal  by  means 
of  a  machine  which  clinches  it  so  tightly  that  it  cuts  into 
the  wood,  thus  preventing  slipping. 

**  Varnish  is  packed  in  oblong  cans.  Cases  contain 
cans  varying  from  the  five-gallon  size  to  a  quarter-pint. 
As  varnish  is  much  lighter  than  paint,  2  five-gallon  cans 
are  often  packed  in  a  single  case,  as  in  picture  A.  The 
solid-top  cans  are  always  used,  but  instead  of  cutting 
open  the  entire  top,  a  small  nozzle  is  attached  so  that  the 
varnish  can  be  poured  easily,  and  this  nozzle  is  provided 
with  a  ream-top  cap.'' 

Another  prominent  manufacturer  and  exporter  of 
paints   supplies   a   photograph   of  his   export   packing 


(B) 


Courtesy  of  Dcvoe  d  Raynolds  Co.,  Inc. 
Cases  Containing  Paint. 


Each  case  contains  six  yallous  of  paint.  Case  at  left  has  6  one  gallon  cans  . 
case  in  middle,  12  one-half  yallan  cans  paeked  in  two  layers;  case  at  right. 
2k  one-quarter  gallon  cans  in  two  layers.  Note  wooden  partitions  between 
rows.     No  wood  is  used  between  layeis. 


i    ...         «^,r.frj|,.      (■     -VARNISHES*    H 

Cmtrtesy  of  Patton  Paint  Co. 
Packing  of  Paints  and  Varnishes. 

The  lower  center  case  cmitains  6'  one  gallan  tins  of  liquid  paint.  Cans  in. 
upper  center  case  are  oval,  a  type  peculiar  to  this  brand.  Case  at  left  contains 
2  five  gallon  square  cans  fitting  snugly,  and  making  cleats  or  sawdust  packing 
unnecessary.     Case   at   right    contains    12    wie   gallan    cans   fitting   snugly. 


Courtesy  of  Joseph  Dixon  Crucible  Co. 

Packing  of  Graphite  Grease. 

Case  of  6  ten  pound  cans  of  graphite  grease  packed  in  double-faced  pasteboard 
cartons.  Upaies  between  cans  and  cartons  are  filled  tcith  excelsior  for  export 
shipments.     Cases  are  iron -stropped. 

523 


a 


B 

n 

* 

t  ^ 

■--li.^ 

n 

H 

ft 

1 

i 

Courtesy  of  Dcvoe  d  Raynolds  Co.,  Inc. 
(A)     Cases  Containing  Varnish. 
Photograph  shows  cases  containing  two  five  gallon  cans  of  varnish. 


Courtesy  of  Dcvoe  d  Raynolds  Co.,  Inc. 
(C)     Method  of  Packing  Paint. 

,Y.^9^^\P?r^if}ons  are  placed  bettveen  rows  of  cans  to  prevent  riihhing.     Saw- 
dust IS  shaken  tn   the  case  to  fill  up  space.     '  "^  "^ 

524 


PACKING  OF  TINNED  GOODS  525 

(reproduced  on  page  523),  and  writes:  ** Sawdust  is 
packed  around  the  tins  when  our  customers  desire.  Many 
of  them,  however,  do  not  care  for  the  sawdust,  as  they 
say  it  sometimes  mars  the  appearance  of  the  labels,  and 
they  agree  with  us  that  it  does  not  add  to  the  strength  of 
the  packing.  However,  in  a  case  of  paints  it  is  impossible 
to  entirely  eliminate  an  occasional  leaker,  and  in  such 
cases  the  sawdust  absorbs  the  leaking  paint,  thereby  pre- 
venting it  from  smearing  up  the  other  cans  in  the  case 
and  running  down  onto  the  other  cases  in  the  shipment. 
The  cans  in  the  upper  center  case  you  will  note  are  oval. 
We  discontinued  this  type  of  cans  as  a  war  economy 
measure.  The  cases  both  right  and  left  of  the  cut  contain 
square  tins  fitting  snugly  in  boxes  so  that  no  packing 
whatever  is  required.  In  the  other  case  the  tins  are  of 
the  double-tight  compression-top  type,  fitted  in  boxes 
made  of  white  pine,  ends  of  y^"  material,  sides  of  %" ; 
cross-pieces  of  %"  stuff  form  6  compartments,  holding 
the  cans  in  place,  the  top  of  the  case  fitting  tightly  against 
another.  Cases  are  strapped  with  half-inch  iron  bands 
at  each  end.'* 

A  large  house  specializing  in  graphite  products  sub- 
mits photographs  (see  pages  523,  541)  of  its  packing 
of  graphite  paints  and  greases  in  cans,  one  photograph 
showing  six  one-gallon  cans  packed  in  excelsior,  another 
showing  6  ten-gallon  cans  of  grease  packed  in  double- 
faced  pasteboard  cartons.  This  photograph  was  taken 
before  the  interstices  had  been  packed  with  excelsior,  as 
is  always  done  in  export,  but  not  in  domestic  shipments. 
All  cases  are  thoroughly  protected  by  strong  iron  strap- 
ping. 

Packing  of  Oils.— A  large  shipper  states:  **Our  cans 
are  manufactured  by  ourselves  and  made  from  the  best 
quality  tin  plate  available.  For  the  one-gallon  size  and 
under  we  use  I.  C.  plate  weighing  approximately  107 
pounds  to  the  base  box,  and  I.  X.  material  for  containers 
over  one  gallon  capacity,  having  a  weight  of  135  pounds 
to  the  base  box.    Our  can  factory  is  equipped  with  the 


526  EXPORT  PACKING 

most  modern  machinery  and  is  managed  by  thoroughly 
competent  and  experienced  help.  In  the  manufacture  of 
all  cans  we  use  the  best  quality  solder  that  can  be  pro- 
cured for  seaming  the  sides,  tops  and  bottoms.  Every 
can  is  tested  carefully  by  air  pressure  to  determine  leaks 
before  the  tins  are  filled.  After  the  cans  are  filled  and 
sealed,  they  receive  a  further  test  for  the  purpose  of 
detecting  leakers  before  they  are  packed  in  cases. 

**  Cases  are  set  up  in  our  case  factory  by  modern 
machines.  The  best  grade  of  white  pine  lumber  is  used 
for  making  the  shooks,  which  are  of  one  piece,  sides,  tops 
and  bottoms,  and  free  from  knots  and  other  imperfec- 
tions which  would  tend  to  weaken  the  case  or  detract 
from  its  appearance.  We  handle  only  nailed  cases,  our 
experience  being  that  these  are  much  stronger  than  pack- 
ages with  lock  corners.  The  thicknesses  of  the  shooks 
are  i/o"  sides,  tops  and  bottoms,  and  %"  ends.  On  export 
business  we  furnish  practically  only  two  sizes,  namely, 
cases  containing  2  five-gallon  and  6  one-gallon  cans. 
Cases  are  shipped  iron-strapped  when  consigned  to  cer- 
tain countries — for  example,  the  Far  East,  South  Amer- 
ica, and  so  on.  For  Great  Britain  and  certain  other 
countries,  on  the  contrary,  we  do  not  consider  iron 
strapping  necessary. 

*^  After  the  filled  cans  have  been  tested,  they  are 
packed  carefully  in  cases,  the  covers  of  which  are  nailed 
on  by  hand.  The  packages  are  placed  on  a  conveyer  and 
put  in  storage.  They  are  delivered  from  storage  direct 
to  the  inside  of  the  car  or  to  the  car  door  by  means  of  a 
gravity  conveyer.  They  are  removed  from  the  conveyer 
by  hand  and  stored  carefully  in  the  cars.  Plenty  of 
dunnage  wood  of  the  best  grade  is  used  for  blocking 
packages  to  prevent  their  shifting  while  in  transit,  so  as 
to  insure  their  arrival  in  good  condition  at  the  seaboard. 
These  packages  receive  another  careful  inspection  at  the 
steamer's  side  by  our  own  experienced  coopers,  so  that 
when  they  are  delivered  aboard  ship  we  have  every  assur- 
ance that  we  have  done  everything  in  our  power  to  safe- 
guard against  defective  cases  reaching  our  foreign  trade. ' ' 


PACKING  OF  TINNED  GOODS  527 

Kerosene  oil,  in  cases  almost  invariably  containing 
two  tins  of  5  gallons  each,  has  been  shipped  for  so  many- 
years  to  all  parts  of  the  world  by  large  and  experienced 
companies  who  have  specialized  in  such  shipping,  that  no 
description  seems  necessary  in  that  connection.  How- 
ever, it  has  been  pointed  out  that  no  little  complaint  has 
been  received  from  many  foreign  markets  of  punctured 
tins  and  consequent  loss  of  contents.  This  damage  seems 
usually  to  have  resulted  from  careless  nailing  of  cases, 
although  in  some  of  the  smaller  markets  to  which  case 
oil  is  shipped  in  small  quantities,  not  in  cargo  lots,  com- 
plaint is  made  of  the  perforation  of  outer  cases  as  well 
as  inner  tins  on  account  of  superimposed  packages  of 
heavy  weight  or  irregular  shapes. 

Packing  of  Tinned  Fruits,  Fish,  Etc.— It  is  perhaps 
in  the  packing  of  tinned  fruits,  vegetables,  some  meat 
products,  fish,  and  similar  commodities,  that  remarks 
earlier  in  this  chapter,  relating  to  the  advantages  to  be 
derived  from  the  use  of  square  instead  of  round  tins, 
are  particularly  to  be  noted.  While  many  paint  manu- 
facturers, for  example,  have  utilized  the  square  tin, 
exporters  of  tinned  fruits,  vegetables,  salmon,  lobster, 
and  the  like,  seem  not  yet  fully  conscious  of  the  distinc- 
tion which  exists  between  domestic  and  export  shipping, 
in  the  sense  that  cases  for  steamship  transportation 
overseas  are  charged  freight  not  on  the  basis  of  the 
weight  of  the  case,  but  on  its  cubic  measurement,  and 
that  every  inch  saved  in  a  cubic  volume  occupied  by  a 
case  means  a  corresponding  saving  to  the  consignee  in 
the  cost  of  goods. 

Another  most  important  consideration,  in  connection 
with  export  shipments  of  such  commodities,  is  the  em- 
phatic necessity  of  protection  against  pilfering.  Meats, 
fruits,  vegetables,  are  peculiarly  attractive  to  the  petty 
thief,  as  are  chocolates  and  confectionery,  and  in  many 
instances  foreign  customers  of  American  houses  have 
complained  of  losses  of  as  high  as  50  per  cent  in  their 
shipments.  In  this  connection,  reference  should  be  made 
to  the  chapter  dealing  with  protection  against  pilfering. 


528  EXPORT  PACKING 

As  almost  all  such  products  bear  attractive  labels, 
and  are  intended  for  shelf  display  in  retail  shops,  the 
preservation  of  the  labels  and  the  maintenance  of  an 
attractive  package  are  peculiarly  desirable  and  neces- 
sary. A  merchant  in  Hong  Kong,  writing  that  he 
imports  large  quantities  of  canned  fruits,  suggests 
packing  the  interstices  between  the  tins  with  light  saw- 
dust, so  that  if  one  tin  becomes  ^* bilged''  from  one  cause 
or  another,  the  sawdust  would  soak  up  the  moisture  and 
prevent  it  from  affecting  the  remainder.  (In  this  regard 
see  former  remarks  as  to  similar  packing  for  paints.) 
The  same  merchant  also  suggested  that  it  would  be  desi- 
rable to  mark  the  cases  containing  perishable  goods  with 
the  legend,  ' '  Stow  Away  From  Boiler. ' '  In  this  regard, 
however,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  such  a  legend  in  the  English 
language  will  be  only  understood  on  vessels  and  in  ports 
where  English  is  spoken,  and  furthermore  that  it  is  an 
unfortunate  fact  that  longshoremen  pay  very  little  atten- 
tion to  warnings  of  any  description.  The  Hong  Kong 
house  just  referred  to  also  wrote:  **We  are  of  the 
opinion  that  if  two  light  one-quarter  inch  battens  were 
nailed  along  each  side  of  the  top  of  each  case  containing 
such  goods,  that  it  would  afford  a  means  of  ventilation 
between  cases  while  in  transit,  with  considerable  bene- 
fit;'' in  reference  to  which  suggestion  it  is  further  to  be 
observed  that  the  cubic  measurement  of  the  cases  would 
be  just  so  much  increased  by  the  addition  of  the  battens 
which  are  recommended.  Whether  resulting  extra  freight 
charges  might  be  offset  by  the  better  condition  in  which 
goods  of  this  sort  would  arrive  at  destination,  is  a  ques- 
tion which  would  have  to  be  answered  by  experience. 

In  regard  to  cases  to  be  used  for  containing  commodi- 
ties of  the  sort  now  in  question,  the  following  has  been 
extracted  and  abbreviated  from  a  report  made  some  time 
ago  by  a  commercial  agent  visiting  Porto  Rico.  He 
observed  that  in  unloading  canned  salmon,  about  twenty 
cases  (each  of  60  pounds)  were  placed  at  one  time  in  a 
rope  net  for  hoisting  from  the  ship's  hold  and  swinging 
out  over  the  dock.    The  goods,  under  the  supervision  of 


(2) 


Courtesy  of  National  Biscuit  Co. 
Packing  of  Large  Tins  of  Biscuits 


Large    tins    are    wrapped    separately    to    prevent 
moisture.      Each    tin    is    ladetled    and    has    a    strip 


contents. 


rusting   from    contact    with> 
at    top    of   label   identifying 


Courtesy  of  Henry  Heide. 

Packing  op  Confectionery. 

Tin  cans  containing  candies  likely  to  he  affected  hy  dampness  are  packed 
in  wooden  cases  with  thirty  k  lb.  or  siMeen  7  Ih.  cans  to  the  case.  A  thin 
cardboard  is  placed  between  cans  to  keep  lithographed  label  from  scratching. 
Cases  are  lined  with  heavy  paper. 

529 


530 


PACKING  OF  TINNED  GOODS  531 

the  chief  officer,  were  well  handled,  and  no  fault  could  be 
found  with  the  method  or  care  taken,  yet  in  every  net  of 
cases  three  or  four  were  broken,  and  the  cans  came  out, 
running  the  risk  of  puncturing  from  nails  or  dents  in 
the  cases,  and  a  few,  of  course,  disappeared  in  the  gar- 
ments of  the  roustabouts.  Cases  in  this  shipment  were 
made  of  good  material,  nailed  with  11/2"  smooth  bright 
wire  nails.  Herein  lay  the  fault.  Such  nails  were  driven 
through  the  tops  and  bottoms  into  the  ends  of  the  cases, 
entering  with  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and  were  unable  to 
stand  the  strain  of  48  cans  against  either  the  top  or  the 
bottom.  A  four-penny  cement-coated  nail  should  have 
been  used,  with  band  iron,  with  which  all  such  shipping 
cases  ought  always  to  be  strapped  for  overseas  trans- 
portation. This  agent  states  that  importers  in  Porto 
Eico  are  charged  more  for  strapped  cases  than  for  those 
with  iron  bands,  although  increasing  the  cost  of  packages 
merely  for  strapping  them  must  come  from  a  lack  of 
knowledge  or  consideration  on  the  part  of  manufacturers. 
Just  as  heavy  nails  seem  to  be  used  for  strapped  as  for 
unstrapped  cases,  and  the  saving  through  the  use  of 
lighter  nails  will  offset  the  cost  of  the  strap.  Iron 
strapped  cases  require,  a  much  lighter  nail  than  a  case 
without  straps. 

A  large  American  house  specializing  in  shipping 
evaporated  vegetables  and  fruits,  states  that  it  has  found 
a  very  successful  export  packing  of  such  commodities, 
sealed  in  tin  cans,  to  consist  of  a  light  case  with  four  or 
five  wires,  in  place  of  the  ordinary  end  strapping".  This 
concern  states  that  it  has  not  yet  received  a  single  com- 
plaint regarding  this  style  of  packing. 

Packing  of  Cereals.— A  very  large  international  ship- 
per of  cereals  states  that  its  products  are  often  shipped 
in  one-pound  ten-ounce  tin  cans,  51/4"  high  by  Sy^'  in 
diameter,  hermetically  sealed,  packed  36  tins  to  a  wooden 
case.  The  cases  are  made  of  hardwood  lumber — sides, 
tops  and  bottoms  1/2",  ends  %".  Each  end  has  two  cleats, 
2"xV2",  running  the  full  depth  of  the  case,  and  every  case 
is  bound  with  nailed  steel  straps  around  each  end. 


532  EXPORT  PACKING 

Packing  of  Biscuits.— Humidity  would  be  strictly  a 
calamity  as  related  to  export  shipments  of  crackers  and 
biscuits,  and  so  we  see  exporters  of  these  products  adopt- 
ing every  precaution  to  guard  against  this  peril.  Pre- 
cautionary measures,  however,  do  not  mean  alone  pro- 
tection of  the  goods,  so  far  as  the  immediate  container 
is  concerned,  but  also  imply  suitable  outer  casing  and 
rugged  substantial  packing  as  a  whole.  The  author  is 
indebted  to  a  large  exporter  for  the  photographs  of  this 
chapter  (see  pages  529,  541),  and  for  the  following 
comment:  ^^ Goods  exported  by  us  to  nearby  and  for- 
eign lands,  including  the  Near  and  Far  East,  are  packed 
in  hermetically  sealed  tins,  and  in  addition  we  export  our 
famous  carton  package  goods,  but  only  to  such  points 
where  climatic  conditions  are  favorable.  The  tins  vary 
in  size,  containing  from  21/2  ounces  to  10  and  12  pounds. 
They  are  sealed  by  means  of  an  inner  lid  of  tin  soldered 
to  a  flange  or  rim  which  projects  inside  of  the  box  from 
the  top,  thus  preventing  damage  from  moisture,  insects, 
etc.  A  slip  cover  goes  on  over  this,  fitting  tight  around 
the  edge  of  the  box.  The  smaller  tins,  as  shown  in 
photograph  No.  1  are  wrapped  together  in  heavy  paper 
glued  at  both  ends,  in  units  of  6  or  12,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  tin.  Each  tin  is  encased  with  a  photographic 
label  showing  a  reproduction  of  the  biscuit  at  both  ends*. 
The  larger  tins,  shown  in  photograph  No.  2,  are  wrapped 
separately,  to  prevent  tin  from  getting  wet  and  rusting. 
Each  tin  is  labeled  with  the  company  label  and  an  addi- 
tional *name  strip'  at  the  top  of  the  label,  to  identify  the 
contents.  The  case  in  the  picture  contains  three  layers 
of  tins,  48  in  all,  each  with  net  weight  of  four  pounds. 
The  size  of  the  case  is  19  cubic  feet.'' 

One  of  the  complaints  received  from  foreign  cus- 
tomers in  regard  to  American  goods,  relates  to  the  fact 
that  some  American  shippers  of  biscuit  have  not  given 
sufficient  attention  to  the  size  of  the  packages  in  which 
biscuits  are  packed.  Boxes  measuring  inside  from  2^/2' 
to  3"  are  made  to  hold  biscuits  only  2%"  in  diameter, 
thus  allowing  a  play  to  the  contents  which  is  quite  likely 


PACKING  OF  TINNED  GOODS  533 

to  damage  a  biscuit  in  a  10,000-mile  journey.  Since  these 
unit  packages  may  not  be  opened  for  months  after  they 
have  been  shipped,  or  even  months  after  they  have  been 
received,  the  annoyance  and  ill  feeling  caused  when  the 
damage  is  discovered  is  so  much  the  more  intensified. 

Confectionery.— An  examination  of  the  literature  on 
the  subject  of  American  export  trade  in  confections  will 
show  constant  stressing  of  the  importance  of  packing. 
The  composition  of  American  confections  and  the  styles 
of  sweetmeats  seem  to  meet  foreign  demand  satisfac- 
torily, but  there  is  apparently  a  good  deal  of  dissatis- 
faction with  reference  to  the  way  in  which  the  goods  are 
packed.  It  would  seem  that  the  American  export  trade 
in  this  class  of  goods  could  be  very  materially  increased 
by  proper  attention  to  and  consideration  of  the  needs  of 
the  foreign  buyer  in  the  matter  of  packing. 

The  author  presents  with  this  chapter  two  photo- 
graphs (pages  448,  529)  furnished  by  a  house  doing  a 
constantly  increasing  trade  abroad,  the  comment  on  these 
illustrations  being  as  follows:  *' Candy  for  export  to 
South  America  or  other  southern  countries,  is  always 
packed  either  in  glass  jars  or  in  tin  cans  to  prevent 
spoiling  by  heat  and  moisture.  The  jars  are  used  when 
the  candy  is  intended  for  sale  direct  to  the  consumer,  a 
jar  or  so  at  a  time;  they  are  hermetically  sealed  by  a 
vacuum  process,  and  will  remain  air-tight  indefinitely, 
until  opened,  but  not  afterwards,  as  the  cover  has  to  be 
punctured  in  order  to  open.  If  the  dealer  wishes  to  sell 
in  bulk,  or  if  he  lives  in  a  particularly  damp  climate,  his 
order  is  packed  in  tins  with  screw  tops,  so  that  he  can 
sell  a  part  of  the  contents  and  yet  keep  the  remainder 
in  good  condition  in  the  same  container.  Tin  cans  are 
packed  in  wooden  cases,  with  30  four-pound  or  16  seven- 
pound  cans  to  the  case.  Gross  weight,  with  four-pound 
cans,  about  175  pounds ;  measure,  4%  cubic  feet.  Gross 
weight,  with  seven-pound  cans,  as  shown  in  picture,  about 
145  pounds ;  measure,  about  3  cubic  feet.  Certain  kinds 
of  candies,  such  as  jelly  beans,  Jordan  almonds,  licorice 
lozenges,  hard  candies  and  other  kinds  which  are  affected 


534  EXPORT  PACKING 

by  dampness  are  always  packed  in  tin.  A  thin  card- 
board is  placed  between  cans  to  keep  the  lithographed 
label  from  scratching.  Cases  are  lined  with  heavy  paper. 
The  case  is  covered  and  strapped  in  the  same  way  as  for 
the  above.  Address,  etc.,  is  put  on  by  means  of  a 
machine-cut  stencil.''  (See  also  cut  page  448,  Chapter 
XVI.) 

Some  exporters  of  confectionery,  doing  a  large  busi- 
ness with  China,  advise  the  present  writer  that  all  candy 
shipped  to  that  market  is  first  wrapped  in  oil  paper,  and 
instead  of  being  shipped  in  the  usual  pails,  is  put  up  in 
cans  holding  40  pounds  each,  made  of  the  lightest  possible 
tin  and  said  to  weigh  3  pounds  less  than  the  ordinary 
kerosene  tin.  These  special  tins  have  been  requested  by 
Chinese  customers,  probably  in  order  to  save  porterage 
charges,  since  it  is  understood  that  the  tins  are  individ- 
ually transported  by  porters  to  interior  points  after 
having  been  distributed  to  various  provincial  cities  by 
the  Shanghai  importers.  Four  of  these  tin  cans,  weigh- 
ing 40  pounds  each,  are  packed  in  a  case  as  strong,  sub- 
stantial and  securely  strapped  as  the  manufacturers  can 
make  it.  At  first,  round  cans  were  used,  but  this  manu- 
facturer has  learned  the  advantage  of  using  square  tins, 
and  now  has  manufactured  for  him  especially  square  tins 
with  screw  tops  in  the  usual  style,  to  hold  the  contents 
above  noted. 

Packing  House  Products.— One  of  the  largest  Amer- 
ican packing  houses  supplies  a  number  of  photographs 
showing  the  fashion  in  which  packing  house  products  in 
tins  are  packed  for  export.  Photographs  on  page  530 
show  cases  of  tins  such  as  contain  lard,  oleomargarine, 
etc.  The  case  is  made  of  heavy  pine,  reenforced  at  each 
end,  and  so  designed  that  if  dropped  on  one  end  the  strain 
will  be  equally  distributed.  The  tins  are  protected  by 
coarse  shavings  intended  to  prevent  the  denting  or  break- 
age of  the  individual  containers.  Metal  straps  are  used 
at  each  end  of  the  case  to  secure  the  boards  and  to 
strengthen  the  ends. 

The  photograph  on  page  530  shows  three  distinct 


Courtesy  of  Sw-ift  d  Co. 
Packing  op  Cotton  Seed  Oil 

Export  packages  made  to  withstand  rough  handling.  Cases  arc  cxceptionaUjf 
heavy.  Tins  are  made  to  fit  snugly  and  are  protected  by  layers  of  shavings 
above  and  b(  neath. 


Courtesy  of  Wash'hum-CrosT)y  Co. 
Thirty  Seven  Methods  of  Packing  Flour. 

Tins  shown  are  of  4.  7,  I'l,  22,  25,  28,  S.n,  H,  50,  55  and  110  pounds.  In 
addition  there  are  half-barrels  and  barrels  with  toire.  fiat  and  wooden  hoops,  as 
well  a^  osnaburg,  cotto^i,  jute,  and  drill  saeks  of  various  sizes  and  weights  de- 
manded by  foreign  customers.  This  shows  the  extent  to  tohich  one  firm  meets 
its  customer's  requirements. 

535 


- 

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Courtesy  of  E.  R.  Squihh  and  Sons. 
Packing  of  Ether. 

Case   containing    200    one-quarter   pound   tins    of   ether   in   regulation   carton. 
Case  is  tin  lined,  but  photograph  was  taken  before  top  was  soldered  on. 


Courtesy  of  E.  R.  Squihh  ,i,id  .^<,n8. 
Case  Containing  Bicarbonate  of  Soda. 
Case  contains   y^    Ih.   tins  some  of  which  are  packed  flat  to  show  manufac- 
turer's label.    Excelsior  is  used  only  to  fill  vacant  spaces. 

536 


PACKING  OF  TINNED  GOODS  537 

styles  of  packing,  the  case  in  the  center  containing  four 
tins  only,  instead  of  25.  This  is  constructed  of  the  same 
heavy  lumber,  and  protected  with  similar  iron  straps,  but 
in  this  instance  the  corners  are  reenforced  from  the  in- 
side instead  of  the  outside. 

Still  another  style  of  packing  lard  for  export  is  illus- 
trated in  cut  3,  page  530.  This  case  is  made  for  shipping 
to  countries  where  packages  are  handled  very  roughly 
and  are  subject  to  being  dropped  on  their  heads  or  other- 
wise. The  partitions  shown  are  necessary  in  order  to 
keep  the  weight  of  one  tin  from  resting  on  another.  In 
one  case  it  will  be  noted  that  the  larger  tins  are  sepa- 
rated each  by  a  partition,  while  in  the  other  case  the 
smaller  tins  have  one  partition  only,  near  the  center  of 
the  box.  These  distribute  the  weight  more  evenly  to 
avoid  damage.  In  both  of  these  cases  it  will  be  noted  that, 
in  addition  to  the  iron  strapping  at  each  end,  an  extra 
strap  has  been  put  about  the  middle  of  the  cases,  which 
not  only  strengthens  the  cases  but  prevents  bulging  from 
any  cause  and  consequent  sifting  out  of  the  shavings  used 
for  additional  protection. 

Cut  on  page  535  shows  the  method  of  shipping  cotton- 
seed oil  in  tins  intended  for  destinations  where  rough 
handling  is  to  be  expected,  because  there  exist  no  con- 
veniences for  unloading  into  lighters  other  than  slings 
and  ropes.  The  cases  shown  are  exceptionally  heavy  and 
the  tins  fit  as  snugly  as  possible  and  are  protected  by 
coarse  shavings,  of  which  there  is  a  layer  both  at  top 
and  bottom  of  the  tins.  The  ends  of  the  cases  are  pro- 
tected by  iron  straps. 

Packing  of  Flour.— Exports  of  wheat  flour  in  1919 
amounted  to  nearly  $300,000,000,  and  whereas  this  was  in 
a  sense  a  record,  the  exports  of  this  commodity  have  for 
many  years  run  into  large  figures.  Although  the  demand 
recently  has  been  one  due  to  urgent  necessity,  this  fact 
has  not  in  any  measure  caused  experienced  flour  export- 
ers to  depart  from  carefully  thought  out  export  methods, 
and  from  the  policy  of  doing  everything  possible  to  please 
customers  and  literally  follow  instructions. 


538  EXPORT  PACKING 

There  are  few  commodities  which  present  a  greater 
variety  of  packing  than  is  the  case  for  flour,  and  in  this 
instance,  like  so  many  others,  the  standard  packing 
methods  are  the  result  of  following  the  customers' 
instructions,  which  in  turn  are  dictated  by  local  condi- 
tions or  local  necessity.  Thus  in  the  case  of  one  well- 
known  exporter,  to  whom  the  author  is  indebted  for  the 
photograph  used  with  this  text,  there  are  no  less  than 
thirty-seven  different  packages  used  in  the  ordinary  for- 
eign trade  routine.  This  variety  is  the  result  of  many 
years'  experience,  and  each  package  corresponds  to  some 
requirement  of  a  foreign  country,  or  in  the  case  of  the 
large,  more  or  less  regular  sacks,  to  the  lack  of 
requirement. 

While  American  flour  is  usually  exported  either  in 
barrels  or  in  bags,  yet  there  is  a  considerable  demand  for 
this  product  in  tins,  to  meet  which  one  of  our  largest 
millers  provides  a  great  variety  of  tins,  some  of  which 
are  illustrated  on  page  535.  The  tins  in  question  are  pro- 
vided in  many  different  sizes,  as  individual  customers  in 
different  markets  of  the  world  may  request  and  instruct. 
Thus  those  illustrated  in  the  photograph  include  tins 
of  4,  7, 14,  22,  25,  28,  33,  44,  50,  55  and  110  pounds.  Some 
of  these  denominations  are,  it  will  be  noted,  intended  for 
countries  using  the  metric  system  of  weights.  Other 
sizes  are  intended  for  retail  packages  in  very  hot,  damp 
tropical  countries,  and  usually  in  parts  of  such  countries 
very  difficult  of  access,  where  packages  must  be  small  and 
light  for  ease  of  transportation,  and  tin  containers  are 
essential  for  the  preservation  of  the  flour  in  retail  estab- 
lishments. 

Chemical  Products. — Photographs  supplied  by  a 
prominent  manufacturer  of  chemical  and  pharmaceutical 
products  illustrate  methods  adopted  for  packing  such 
products  in  tins.  An  accompanying  photograph  (page 
536)  shows  a  case  containing  200  quarter-pound  tins  of 
ether,  each  tin  in  the  usual  carton.  Cases  are  tin-lined, 
and  packed;  the  top  is  next  soldered  on,  guarding 
against  the  corrosion  of  the  tin  containers  through  the 


PACKING  OF  TINNED  GOODS  539 

action  of  sea  water  or  sea  air,  and  resulting  leakage. 

Another  photograph  shows  a  case  of  bicarbonate  of 
soda  in  quarter-pound  tins.  A  feature  of  this  packing 
is  that  the  manufacturers,  lay  some  of  the  rows  of  cans 
flat  in  order  to  display  their  labels,  excelsior  being  used 
only  to  fill  in  vacant  spaces. 

A  third  photograph  (page  549)  from  another  house, 
represents  a  standard  case  of  12  one-gallon  tins  of  anti- 
septic fluid.  It  will  be  noted  from  this  photograph  that 
4  tins  are  placed  in  each  carton,  3  cartons — that  is, 
12  one-gallon  tins — making  a  secure  and  compact  ship- 
ping case.  Particularly  to  be  observed  is  the  fact  that 
inside  of  each  carton  of  4  tins  a  wooden  block  has  been 
placed,  in  order  to  prevent  the  shifting  of  the  cans  while 
en  route,  which  would  result  in  throwing  their  full 
weight  upon  the  handles,  crushing  them  down,  and  pos- 
sibly cutting  into  the  cans  themselves,  thus  causing  loss 
from  leakage. 

Packing  of  Compressed  Hops. — As  a  rule  deteriora- 
tion in  any  one  of  its  various  forms  is  taken  care  of  by 
different  sorts  of  glass  or  metal  containers  which  pre- 
vent contact  with  the  infecting  microbes  of  the  air,  the 
containers  themselves  presenting  us  with  the  packing 
problem.  In  the  case  of  hops,  however,  the  packing  case 
may  be  at  one  and  the  same  time  the  shipping  container 
and  the  means  of  preserving  the  delicacy  and  value  of  the 
commodity. 

A  high  quality  of  hops  is  alone  obtained  by  air-drying 
at  a  low,  even  temperature,  the  air  being,  fanned  through 
the  mass  and  the  moisture  removed  by  forced  air 
draught.  Drying  hops  by  artificial  heat  depreciates  the 
quality  of  the  oils,  converts  the  soft  resins  into  hard 
resins,  and  destroys  to  a  great  extent  the  brewing  value 
of  the  hops.  It  is  these  oils  and  resins  that  the  export 
package  of  hops  must  conserve,  and  the  flavor  and  aroma 
must  be  preserved  in  spite  of  transportation  hazards  and 
climatic  perils. 

A  house  with  a  large  export  business  describes  its  ex- 
port package  as  follows  (see  cuts,  page  549) : 


540  EXPORT  PACKING 

**Our  Style  N'o.  250  packing: — These  hops  are  first 
pressed  into  cakes  or  slabs  16"  square  by  IVi"  thick,  and 
.weigh  8  pounds  net,  and  44  of  the  cakes  are  packed  in  tin- 
lined  wooden  cases.  To  offer  additional  protection 
against  damage,  the  case  is  lined  with  a  heavy  paraffin 
kraf t  paper.  This  packing  protects  the  hops  against  loss 
of  flavor.  The  case  can  be  shipped  to  any  climate  with- 
out danger  of  hops  being  damaged  by  the  aroma  from 
other  merchandise. 

**Our  packing  No.  251:  The  hops  are  pressed  the 
same  as  in  packing  No.  250,  except  that  7  cakes  are 
packed  in  one  tin  containing  56  pounds  net^ — 3  tins  per 
case,  making  a  total  net  weight  per  case  of  168  pounds. 
This  package  is  especially  suited  for  the  Central  and 
South  American  markets  where  the  exporter  or  jobber 
buys  in  case  quantities,  and  wants  a  package  that  can 
be  unpacked  and  redistributed  in  small  quantities  with- 
out exposing  contents  to  damage  from  climatic  conditions 
or  insects.  The  cost  of  this  extra  packing  does  not  exceed 
3  cents  per  pound.  The  maximum  weight  per  cubic 
foot  can  be  shipped  in  these  cases.  This  we  claim  as  a 
very  big  improvement  over  the  old  method  of  packing 
hops  for  export  shipment,  and  it  is  meeting  with  the 
hearty  approval  of  the  trade  in  all  sections  of  the  world.  ^  ^ 

Printing  Inks  in  Export  Tins. — The  author  esteems 
himself  fortunate  to  have  the  following  interesting  and 
very  highly  valuable  communication  written  for  this  vol- 
ume by  0.  L.  Peabody: 

**The  packing  of  printing  inks  for  the  export  market 
is  a  subject  that  requires  careful  study  and  considerable 
experience  if  results  satisfactory  to  the  consumer  are  to 
be  obtained.  The  best  of  packing  materials  should  be 
used.  Every  care  must  be  taken  that  cans,  cases  and  all 
other  packages  are  made  of  good  quality  material  and 
heavy  enough  to  stand  the  rough  usage  to  which  the  pack- 
ages are  subjected  in  traveling  long  distances. 

*^ Export  shipments  are  subject  to  a  large  number  of 
handlings;  such  as  the  inland  trip  to  tidewater,  cartage 
at  the  port  of  shipment,  possibly  to  a  warehouse  and  later 


541 


'-^^ 


Courtesy  of  Geo.  H.  Morrill  Co. 

Packing  op  Printing  Inks. 


(Left)  Shows  method  of  wrapping  cans  in  paper  to  protect  labels,  water- 
proof case  lining  and  wooden  packing  case.  (Right)  Case  ready  far  shipment 
showing  method  of  strapping,  nailing  and  stencilling. 


Courtesy  of  Oeo.  H.  Morrill  Co. 

Partly  Packed  Case  of  Printing  Inks. 

Rolls  of  cans,  packed  in  paper,  are  firmly  bedded  in  shavings.     A  waterproof 
case  lining  is  likewise  used. 

542 


PACKING  OF  TINNED  GOODS  543 

to  the  steamer,  also  loading  into  the  vessel,  generally  in 
a  sling  with  many  other  materials.  The  same  process  is 
repeated  at  the  other  end  of  the  journey  where  the  situ- 
ation is  sometimes  complicated  by  the  fact  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  lighter  the  cargo.  In  the  final  analysis,  many  of 
the  shipments  are  carried  on  pack  animals  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  country.  On  account  of  the  various  han- 
dlings, small  packages  are  preferable  to  larger  ones 
because  they  are  easier  to  handle  and  are  proportionately 
stronger. 

*  *  Every  batch  of  ink  which  my  company  manufactures 
has  not  only  the  number  and  name  of  the  ink,  but  also  a 
serial  grinding  number.  This  grinding  number  refers  to 
the  particular  batch  of  ink  in  question.  A  small  sample 
of  this  batch  is  kept  and  also  a  full  and  complete  record 
of  what  went  into  the  batch  and  all  other  facts  concerning 
it,  so  that  if  at  any  time  later  the  company  is  furnished 
with  the  grinding  number,  full  and  complete  information 
about  the  batch  may  be  had  and  also,  which  is  more  im- 
portant still,  a  sample  of  the  actual  batch  of  ink  in  ques- 
tion is  available.  Every  package  of  ink  turned  out  by 
our  company  carries  this  grinding  number  either  by  per- 
foration in  the  band  around  the  can,  a  perforated  metal 
tag  attached  to  the  package,  or  by  stenciling.  This  has 
been  found  to  be  a  very  valuable  feature.  The  name  and 
number  of  the  ink  are  shown  on  the  label. 

'*Ink  is  packed  in  i/o,  1,  5  and  10-pound  cans.  Cans 
for  the  same  quantity  of  ink  may  vary  greatly,  but  this 
is  unavoidable.  Care  is  taken  to  select  cans  such  that 
the  pound. of  ink  completely  fills  the  can.  This  is  necesr 
sary  in  order  to  avoid  having  the  ink  flow  about  in  the 
can  and  mixing  into  the  ink  any  skin  that  is  formed. 
Therefore  it  happens  that  while  a  number  of  cans  may 
contain  one  pound  of  ink,  the  sizes  of  the  various  cans 
vary  considerably.  Although  this  necessitates  carrying 
in  stock  many  different  sizes  of  cans,  this  bad  feature 
is  amply  compensated  for  by  the  fact  that  when  each  can 
is  full  the  ink  reaches  the  customer  in  good  condition. 
There  is  a  wax  paper  placed  on  the  top  of  the  ink  ^fter 


644  EXPORT  PACKING 

the  can  is  filled,  the  cover  is  put  on,  and  the  can  is  then 
banded  with  a  substantial  paper  band,  after  which  it 
is  labeled.  Three  things  in  connection  with  the  banding 
and  labeling  are  noteworthy:  first,  the  character  of  the 
labels;  for  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  labels  are  designed 
to  be  characteristic  and  serve  as  a  trademark  or  means  of 
identification  of  the  inks,  no  matter  where  the  cans  may 
go,  and  each  can  also  carries  the  label  of  the  representa- 
tive who  handles  the  ink;  second,  the  grinding  number 
perforated  in  the  band  which  is  also  an  important  fea- 
ture; third,  liquids  are  packed  in  screw  top  cans,  which 
are  also. banded  and  labeled,  as  are  all  of  the  cans  of  our 
manufacture. 

**The  wooden  cases  in  which  all  cans  (and  tubes)  are 
shipped  are  very  important  in  export  shipments.  The 
case  used  is  of  special  construction  as  shown  in  cut 
page  542.  Attention  is  called  particularly  to  the  fol- 
lowing: the  small  size  of  the  case,  27%"  x  17%"  x  I51/2", 
outside  dimensions ;  the  thickness  of  the  wood  from  which 
the  case  is  made, — %"  stock;  the  way  the  case  is  con- 
structed,— particularly  the  cleats  on  the  end  and  the  way 
they  are  built  in  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  case 
(cut  page  542  shows  this  feature,  which  gives  a  corner 
which  protects  the  cleat,  making  it  practically  impossible 
for  the  cleat  to  be  pulled  off,  and  also  holds  the  cover  in 
position) ;  best  results  are  obtained  by  using  sufficient 
nails,  but  not  too  many,  coated  nails  being  the  best. 

*'In  order  to  make  the  cases  as  waterproof  as  possible, 
a  heavy  manila  paper  bag  lining  is  used.  This  lining  is 
made  of  two  thicknesses  of  manila  paper  with  a  tar  prep- 
aration between,  making  a  practically  waterproof  paper. 
The  lining  is  made  the  exact  size  of  the  inside  of  the  case 
so  that  it  drops  down  into  the  case  without  folds  or 
creases.  This  lining  is  shown  at  the  left  in  cut  page  542. 
The  rolls  of  cans  are  placed  in  the  case  as  shown  in  cut 
page  542,  and  shavings,  which  are  much  better  than  saw- 
dust, because  they  do  not  sift  out,  are  packed  carefully 
around  each  roll  of  cans  and  tamped  down  solidly,  which 
gives  a  very  firm  packing  of  the  cans  in  the  case.    A  case 


PACKING  OF  TINNED  GOODS  545 

so  packed  is  shown  in  cut  page  542.  The  lining  is  then 
folded  over  as  shown  in  the  same  cut,  and  the  cover  nailed 
on  the  case. 

*^  After  the  case  is  nailed,  it  is  strapped  with  iron,  as 
shown  in  cut  page  542.  This  strapping  is  put  on  with  a 
special  machine  wliich  draws  it  so  tight  that  the  strapping 
absolutely  cuts  into  the  wood  at  the  comers,  after  which 
it  is  sealed  with  a  special  seal,  as  shown  on  the  top  of  the 
box,  cut  page  542.  A  nail  is  driven  through  the  strap- 
ping and  through  each  board  of  the  case. .  This  not  only 
holds  the  strapping  securely,  but  discourages  pilfering.. 
The  case  is  then  ready  for  stenciling. 

**  Great  care  should  be  used  in  stenciling  cases  in 
order  that  it  may  be  easily  read,  and  so  that  there  can  be 
no  question  as  to  any  of  the  lettering  on  the  case.  This 
is  also  shown  in  cut  page  542. 

**Five  and  ten-pound  cans  are  packed  in  the  same  size 
cases  in  a  similar  manner.  The  cases  are  comparatively 
small,  because  printing  ink  is  a  relatively  heavy  material, 
and  it  is  founil  that  the  smaller  the  cases,  the  stronger 
they  are  and  the  better  they  travel.  These  cases  have 
been  used  for  export  shipments  for  the  past  twelve  years 
without  a  complaint  from  any  customer  on  account  of 
faulty  packing. 

**  Years  of  experience  and  many  experiments  have 
shown  the  methods  described  to  be  fundamentally  neces- 
sary and  correct  for  the  successful  packing  of  printing 
inks  for  export.  They  are  fundamental  for  all  export 
packing.  The  principal  object  is  that  the  goods  shall 
reach  the  ultimate  consumer  in  an  attractive  form,  pack- 
ages unbroken  and  in  good  condition,  and  this  latter 
statement  is  especially  true  of  the  labels.'* 


CHAPTER  XX 
EXPORT  PACKING  OF  GOODS  IN  CARTONS 

THE  neat  and  attractive  fashion  in  which  a  large 
and  increasing  variety  of  American  goods  of  all 
descriptions  are  put  up  in  cartons  for  the  retail 
trade  show-window  and  shelf  and  counter  display,  has 
attracted  the  admiration  of  foreign  merchants  all  around 
the  world  and  the  envy  of  European  manufacturers  of 
similar  products.  The  English  trade  papers  especially 
have  repeatedly  urged  on  British  manufacturers  an  imita- 
tion of  American  practices  in  thus  packing  shelf  and 
counter  goods.  The  packing  of  such  goods  in  cartons  for 
export  shipment,  therefore,  involves  primarily  the  deliv- 
ery of  the  contents  of  cases  to  customers  in  distant  lands 
in  the  salable  and  attractive  condition  in  which  they  leave 
the  original  shipper,  that  is,  in  the  condition  in  which  the 
maker  of  the  goods  intends  and  expects  they  will  arrive 
and  be  placed  on  display  by  retail  dealers,  no  matter 
where  situated. 

At  first  blush  it  might  be  thought  that  packing  for  ex- 
port shipment  of  such  commodities  as  are  now  under  con- 
sideration would  involve  no  special  problems, — that  all 
anyone  would  have  to  do  would  be  to  take  the  individual 
cartons,  stow  them  away  in  the  case,  nail  it  up,  and  for- 
ward it.  But  on  maturer  consideration  it  will  be  recog- 
nized that  there  are  a  great  many  considerations  which 
ought  to  have  thoughtful  attention.  In  the  first  place 
the  strength  of  the  cartons  employed  when  goods  are 
despatched  to  overseas  markets  ought,  in  many  instances, 
to  be  superior  to  the  somewhat  flimsy  cardboard  occasion- 
ally used  with  some  products  for  domestic  sales  purposes. 
In  intimate  connection  with  that  consideration  comes  the 
question  of  the  size  of  cartons,  and  the  packing  of  the 
goods  themselves  within  the  cartons.    As  has  been  re- 

546 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  GOODS  IN  CARTONS  547 

peatedly  pointed  out  in  this  volume,  waste  of  space  in 
foreign  shipments  means  increased  freight  charges  on  the 
goods,  and  if  an  unnecessary  freight  cost,  even  of  2  per 
cent  on  the  value  of  the  goods,  can  be  avoided  it  is  ob- 
viously highly  desirable  that  the  shipper  should  adopt 
every  possible  measure  to  affect  this  saving  and  space 
reduction.  Many  cartoned  goods  are  shipped  for  ex- 
port in  identically  the  same  fashion  in  which  they 
are  supplied  to  trade  here  at  home.  In  the  latter  trade  it 
is  obviously  of  no  moment  at  all  whether  the  contents  of 
a  carton  fit  exactly  or  snugly,  or  whether  there  may  be 
half  an  inch  in  length,  breadth,  or  thickness  which  is 
unoccupied  bj^  the  contents.  This  waste  of  space  may, 
however,  be  a  highly  important  matter  in  export  ship- 
ments; take,  for  example,  a  case  containing  60  or  100 
cartons  of  no  matter  what  product,  and  if  there  is  a  waste 
of  space  in  each  carton  of  half  an  inch  in  length  and  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  height,  it  is  not  difficult  to  figure  out 
that  the  unnecessary  cubic  space  occupied  by  a  case  con- 
taining such  a  quantity  of  cartons  would  easily  measure 
a  total  of  two  or  three  cubic  feet.  This  might  mean  pay- 
ing unnecessary  freight  and  other  charges  of  as  much  as 
two  or  three  dollars  on  the  case  in  question,  and  this  un- 
necessary charge  might  amount  to  a  total  of  2  per  cent  of 
the  value  of  the  contents.  Furthermore,  if  the  contents 
of  a  carton  do  not  exactly  fill  it  there  is  certain  to  be  a 
good  deal  of  play  and  rubbing  or  knocking  of  the  contents 
in  the  course  of  repeated  handlings  before  the  shipment 
reaches  its  ultimate  foreign  destination,  and  hence  if  the 
cartons  themselves  are  not  strong  and  substantial  they 
are  not  likely  to  arrive  in  immaculate  condition.  On  all 
of  these  accounts,  therefore,  most  careful  thought  ought 
to  be  given  to  the  desirability  of  special  cartons  for 
export. 

Of  course  shipping  any  commodities  in  cartons  is  not 
the  most  economical  possible  fashion  of  so  despatching 
them  by  steamship.  The  packing  in  cartons  inevitably 
involves  the  use  of  considerably  greater  shipping  space 
than  would  be  necessitated  were  the  same  commodities 


548  EXPORT  PACKING 

packed  in  bulk,  without  the  use  of  cartons.  However,  im- 
porters and  retail  merchants  in  other  countries  prefer  to 
pay  the  higher  freight  charges  involved  when  goods  are 
forwarded  in  attractive  cartons.  These  materially  assist 
in  increasing  sales  at  retail,  and  no  American  manufac- 
turer should  contemplate  shipping  in  bulk  when  this  ele- 
ment of  attractiveness  of  the  package  is  an  important 
one — at  least,  unless  his  foreign  customers  specifically 
urge  and  instruct  the  abandonment  of  the  carton.  In- 
stances have  been  known  where,  in  certain  Latin  Ameri- 
can markets,  where  differing  rates  of  duty  apply  to  cases 
containing  mixed  commodities,  importers  have  instructed 
that  the  goods  themselves  be  packed  separately,  in  bulk, 
and  that  the  cartons  in  which  the  goods  are  ordinarily 
shown  and  sold  at  retail  be  separately  shipped,  in  order 
that  the  importer,  after  securing  reduced  import  duties 
through  such  shipment,  might  properly  repack  the  goods 
in  the  cartons  after  receipt  in  his  warehouses. 

Before  passing  on  to  other  considerations  affecting 
the  packing  of  goods  in  cartons,  it  should  be  noted  that 
the  interior  packing  of  cartons  should  be  designed  to  pre- 
vent any  rubbing  or  similar  damage  to  their  contents. 
These  should  fit  closely,  or  if  not,  be  adequately  pro- 
tected by  wrappings  or  stuffings  of  tissue  paper  or  other 
materials,  as  the  nature  of  the  contents  might  require. 
This  applies  particularly  when  contents  do  not  exactly  fit 
the  cartons. 

It  would  appear  to  be  true  that  most  manufacturers 
and  shippers  of  commodities  now  under  consideration 
employ  stock  cases  for  their  export  shipments.  In  the 
domestic  trade  the  commodities  in  question  may  be  and 
probably  usually  are  sold  in  standard  quantities,  a  dozen 
or  a  gross  of  one  article,  50  or  100  of  another  article,  per- 
haps 48  or  60  pairs  of  shoes,  and  so  on.  Stock  cases 
adapted  for  such  standard  quantities  may  be  entirely 
suitable  for  export  work,  but  a  good  many  foreign  orders 
involve  shipment  in  other  than  standard  quantities,  and 
very  frequently  may  involve  shipment  of  odd  quantities 
of  assorted  goods.    In  such  instances  stock  cases  ought 


Courtesy  of  Parke,  Davis  d  Co. 

Packing  of  Antiseptic  Fluid. 

standard  case  of  12  one  goUon  tins.  Four  tins  are  placed  in  each  carton, 
and  three  cartatis  fill  case  compactly.  Each  carton  contains  a  wooden  block  to 
prevent  shifting  of  tins. 


Courtesy  of  E.  Clemens  Horst  d  Co. 
Packing  of  Compressed  Hops. 

(Left)  Hops  are  pressed  into  cakes  16"  square  by  l^i"  thick  and  weighing 
8  lbs.,  H  cakes  being  packed  in  tin  lined  case.  (Right)  Another  method  of 
packing  hops.  Seven  cakes  are  packed  in  one  tin  containing  56  lbs.,  three  tins 
being  packed  to  a  case. 

549 


Courtesy  of  Hanan  d  Son. 
Packing  of  Shoes. 

Case  contains  a  waterproof  lining  which  i^  folded  down  over  too  to  vrevent 
damage  by  moisture. 


(Jourtesy  of  Joseph  Dixon  Crucible  Co. 
Packing  of  Assorted  Lead  Pencils. 

The  shipment  is  carefully  protected   by  paper  linings,  iron   straps,  and  the 
open  spaces  filled  with  excelsior. 

550 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  GOODS  IN  CARTONS  551 

not  to  be  supplied  unless  they  exactly  fit  the  quantities  of 
cartons  which  are  to  go  forward.  It  is  much  better  to 
have  special  cases  built  rather  than  attempt  to  stuff  with 
excelsior  or  paper  the  vacant  spaces,  which  may  be  left 
by  packing  in  a  stock  case  a  miscellaneous  assortment. 
Furthermore,  stock  cases  ought,  of  course,  never  to  be 
used  unless  they  are  of  weight  and  character  entirely  suit- 
able for  export  shipments — that  is  to  say — of  the  descrip- 
tion which  has  elsewhere  and  at  numerous  points  in  this 
volume  been  described  and  strongly  emphasized. 

Waterproof  linings  for  cases  to  contain  goods  in  car- 
tons, and  in  many  instances  hermetically  sealed  tin 
linings  for  such  cases,  are  peculiarly  necessary;  and 
sometimes  soft  linings  or  cushioning  between  the  walls  of 
the  case  and  the  cartons,  or  even  between  the  rows  or 
layers  of  cartons  are  equally  important,  since  the  preser- 
vation for  arrival  in  attractive  condition  of  the  appear- 
ance of  handsome  cartons  is  a  prime  desirability  in 
almost  all  such  shipments.  For  similar  reasons  special 
care  must  be  taken,  in  nailing  on  the  covers  of  such  cases, 
to  guard  again  nails  entering  within  the  case  and  per- 
forating or  otherwise  damaging  the  cartons  with  which 
they  come  in  contact. 

Almost  all  goods  ordinarily  shipped  in  cartons  are 
peculiarly  the  objects  of  solicitude  on  the  part  of  pil- 
ferers, who  prey  on  export  shipments  on  dock  and  on 
board  of  steamers,  in  no  matter  what  part  of  the  world. 
Shoes^  confectionery,  foodstuffs — all  these,  and  in  gen- 
eral most  cartoned  goods,  must  be  very  thoroughly  pro- 
tected by  every  known  device  against  the  danger  of 
pilfering,  and  in  this  connection  study  should  be  made  of 
the  special  chapter  in  this  volume  devoted  to  this  subject. 

Export  Packing  of  Shoes.— In  the  packing  of  leather 
shoes  it  is  of  prime  importance  to  protect*  the  goods 
against  moisture,  and  this  is  commonly  done  by  thor- 
oughly waterproofing  the  case  and  securing  the  goods 
against  all  possible  contact  with  dampness.  In  certain 
cases,  such,  for  example,  as  the  export  package  of  a  well- 
known  company  to  whom  thanks  are  due  for  photographs 


552  EXPORT  PACKING 

reproduced  on  page  550  the  case  may  be  tin  or  zinc  lined, 
a  practice  that  is  very  general  with  shipments  going 
to  South  America.  Furthermore,  the  usual  requisites  of 
stout  cases  is  more  than  required  in  this  case  because  of 
the  danger  of  pilfering. 

This  last  point  is  extremely  important  in  the  case  of 
shoes,  for  we  have  here  an  ideal  class  of  merchandise  for 
the  pilferer.  Of  use  to  anybody  in  any  country,  easily 
concealed  and  transported,  equally  easily  disposed  of, 
every  effort  should  be  made  to  see  that  safety  seals  are 
placed  on  the  cases  and  that  the  contents  of  the  shipment 
are  as  fully  disguised  as  possible. 

A  large  company,  other  than  the  one  mentioned  above, 
states:  **As  regards  information  relative  to  the  way  our 
shoes  are  packed,  we  beg  to  state  that,  first,  we  check  the 
shoes  on  to  our  packing  table  prior  to  having  them  placed 
in  the  cases ;  then,  as  they  are  placed  in  the  case  they  are 
rechecked.  This  practically  precludes  mistakes  in  our 
count. 

**The  cases  are  made  of  selected  gum,  free  of  knot 
holes  or  knots,  having  I/2"  sides,  yg"  heads,  and  the 
heavier  case  is  reenforced  with  %"  strips  4"  wide  all 
around.  The  shoes  themselves  are  packed  in  a  waterproof 
liner  made  of  two  layers  of  heavy  paper  with  a  thin 
coating  of  waterproof  substance  between  the  layers. 
This  paper  comes  in  the  shape  of  bags,  which  are  fitted 
into  the  case,  and  the  shoes  are  placed  inside  the  bag. 
When  the  required  number  of  shoes  are  in  the  case,  the 
bag  is  folded  down  on  the  top  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent 
against  water  seeping  in  through  the  openings.  The  lids 
of  the  cases  are  then  nailed  on  securely  with  coated  wire 
nails  and  strapped  all  around  with  %"  metal  strips,  the 
ends  of  which  are  inserted  through  a  patent  seal,  and  a 
nail  driven  through  that  seal.  We  place  no  identification 
marks  on  our  cases  to  show  what  is  contained  therein,  nor 
does  our  name  appear  thereon  in  any  place.  We  thus 
eliminate  the  feature  of  having  the  cases  show  that  they 
contain  shoes^  and  since  we  have  followed  this  method 
our  percentage  of  pilferage  has  materially  decreased.*' 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  GOODS  IN  CARTONS  553 

A  third  large  shoe  exporter  states:  *'In  forwarding 
our  shipments  to  foreign  countries  we  have  found  in  our 
experience  that  a  number  of  different  methods  are  re- 
quired, according  to  the  point  of  destination.  For  in- 
stance, on  shipments  to  the  West  Coast  of  South 
America  the  risk  of  theft  and  pilferage  is  very  high,  and 
shipments  are,  therefore,  packed  with  the  view  to  avoid 
this  extra  risk.  As  you  no  doubt  know,  most  of  the  goods 
arriving  at  West  Coast  ports  are  lightered  from  the 
steamers,  as  wharfage  facilities  are  few,  and  this  process 
adds  greatly  to  the  chance  of  pilferage.  For  this  reason 
our  shipments  to  the  West  Coast  are  first  packed  in 
ordinary  wooden  cases  such  as  are  used  for  shipment  in 
this  country,  and  are  then  repacked  in  heavy  %''  stock 
wooden  cases,  which  are  ordinarily  known  as  dry  goods 
cases.  These  cases  are  strapped  at  both  ends  and  sealed, 
and  as  an  extra  precaution  a  wire  band  and  seal  are 
placed  around  the  center  of  the  case.  Each  separate 
board  is  nailed  individually ;  also  the  strapping  is  nailed 
to  each  board.  On  shipments  to  the  East  Coast,  the  cases 
are  lined  in  the  usual  manner  with  waterproof  paper. 
The  strapping  and  sealing  are  the  same.  This  method 
we  have  also  applied  on  our  shipments  going  to  the 
continent  of  Europe. 

**You  are,  no  doubt,  familiar  with  certain  require- 
ments which  call  for  packing  out  of  the  ordinary.  We 
have  been  requested  at  times  to  wrap  our  wooden  cases 
in  burlap,  which  cannot  be  tampered  with  without  show- 
ing traces. 

^^Our  patent  leather  shoes  are  generally  packed  in 
parchment  paper,  which  is  the  best  protection  against 
the  wearing  off  of  the  varnish  used  on  the  patent  leather. 
However,  on  shipments  to  some  of  the  Central  American 
countries  where  the  climate  is  damp,  we  use,  in  addition 
to  the  oiled  paper,  cotton-batting  paper,  which  we  have 
found  gives  good  results  in  all  cases." 

A  variation  of  the  usual  fashion  in  the  packing  of 
shoes  for  export  is  reported  from  Cuba,  where  certain 
manufacturers,  probably  by  agreement  with  their  whole- 


554  EXPORT  P4CKING 

sale  customers  on  that  island,  are  accustomed  to  packing 
12  single  cartons  of  shoes  in  one  large  pasteboard  or 
fibre  carton,  securely  wrapped  with  paper,  and  tied,  and 
labeled  with  description,  number  of  pairs  of  each  size, 
etc.,  in  order  that  the  wholesale  distributor  may  easily 
reship  small  lots  to  his  retail  customers  in  the  country. 
The  cartons  are  of  course  enclosed  in  a  suitable  shipping 
case. 

As  an  instance  of  bad  packing,  a  New  York  firm  of 
foreign  freight  contractors  tells  of  a  shipment  which  it 
encountered,  typical  of  many,  which  brought  to  light  an 
appalling  indifference  to  packing  for  export.  The  ship- 
ment in  question  consisted  of  some  1,500  cases  of  shoes, 
originating  in  Chicago  and  destined  to  a  point  in  Eou- 
mania.  The  shoes  were  packed  in  cases  made  of  lumber 
which  was  not  any  thicker  than  an  ordinary  egg  case,  and 
were  only  strapped  with  very  thin  wire.  The  shipment, 
upon  arrival  in  New  York,  was  naturally  in  very  bad 
condition,  practically  every  case  having  to  be  recoopered, 
involving  considerable  expense.  This  firm  calls  attention 
to  the  fact  that  in  this  particular  instance  the  shipment 
was  very  poorly  packed  even  for  a  domestic  movement, 
and  that  if  it  had  been  allowed  to  proceed  without  recoop- 
ering,  on  the  assumption  that  the  steamship  company 
would  accept  it  in  such  a  condition,  the  shoes  would  have 
arrived  at  destination  in  very  bad  shape  indeed. 

Packing  of  Rubber  Boots  and  Shoes.— A  large  manu- 
facturer of  rubber  footwear  states:  ^^ Rubber  footwear 
for  domestic  consumption  is  packed  in  cardboard  boxes, 
usually  24  pairs  to  the  case.  For  export  we  have  been 
using  a  specially  constructed  case  of  1"  material,  cleated, 
and  with  reenforced  ends.  We  have  never  had  trouble  on 
our  shipments  that  have  been  packed  in  the  special  ex- 
port cases.  The  standard  domestic  containers  are  very 
unsatisfactory.  We  also  ship  the  goods  in  bulk,  remov- 
ing the  cardboard  boxes  wherever  it  is  possible,  which 
shows  an  economy  of  40  per  cent  in  the  shipping  space. 
Our  trade  is  supplied  with  a  list  showing  the  cubic  meas- 
urements, and  the  gross  and  net  weights  of  the  various 


Courtesy  of  Joseph  Dixon  Crucible  Co. 
Case  op  Lead  Pencils. 
In  this  instance  the  case  contains  a  shipment  of  lead  pencils  all  of  the  same 
grade  and  size. 


Courtesy  of  Geo.  H.  Morrill  Co. 
Packing  of  Printers'  Ink  in  Tubes. 

Collapsible  tubes  are  placed  in  printed  cartons  and  solidly  packed  with  saw- 
dust. Four  14  lb.  tube  cartons  are  then  placed  in  a  large  carton,  making  an 
attractive  1  lb.  package  of  J,  tubes,  each  in  its  separate  carton. 

655 


Courtesy  of  Oeo.  Borgfeldt  d  Co. 
Packing  of  Novelties  and  Toy  Sewing  Machines. 

(Left)  Christmas  tree  ornaments  in  boxes,  whieh  are  sectioned  to  prevent 
breakage.  Boxes  must  he  closely  packed  to  prevent  jostling.  Oiled  paper  lining 
is  used  to  prevent  injury  to  painted  decorations.  (Right)  Toy  sewing  machiius 
are  wrapped  in  paper,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  mechanism,  excelsior  is  not  used 
inside  the  carton,  it  is  however  placed  between  each  two  layers  of  boxes. 


Courtesy  of  Geo.  Borgfeldt  d  Co. 

Packing  of  Dolls. 

Dolls  are  easily  broken.  Each  doll  is  tightly  fitted  into  box  with  corrugated 
paper  and  excelsior,  enough  excelsior  being  used  to  give  spring  should  box  be 
dropped.  Boxes  packed  in  even  rows  and  spaces  between  well  filled  with 
excelsior. 

656 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  GOODS  IN  CARTONS   557 

rubber  shoes  packed  under  the  two  methods  described. 
**We  have  simplified  our  replies  to  general  inquiries 
so  that  it  is  covered  in  one  paragraph,  which  reads  as 
follows : 

24  pairs  to  case  —  women's  33^  cubic  feet 

24      "      "     "  men's  5 

100     "        bulk        women's  5         "        " 

100      "  "  men's  8 


''The  objection  to  packing  most  goods  in  bulk  is  due 
to  the  condition  under  w^iich  they  arrive  at  destination. 
The  Europeans  have  had  sufficiently  cheap  labor  in  the 
past  to  pay  particular  attention  to  the  finish  of  their 
goods,  with  the  net  result  that  American  goods  packed 
closely  to  conserve  space  almost  invariably  lay  the  manu- 
facturer open  to  a  question  as  to  the  finish  of  his  goods, 
due  to  the  condition  under  which  they  arrive. 

''It  is  our  experience  that  it  is  advisable  to  take  addi- 
tional space  and  have  the  goods  arrive  at  destination  in 
the  best  manner  possible,  dividing  the  cost  per  ease  by 
the  number  of  units  contained  therein.  This  shows  only 
a  small  additional  cost  to  have  the  goods  in  proper  con- 
dition. It  is  our  judgment  that  the  American  manufac- 
turer would  do  well  to  study  first  the  condition  in  which 
his  goods  will  arrive  in  the  foreign  market,  and  then  the 
economy  in  space  that  it  is  possible  to  obtain  when  the 
goods  are  properly  packed.'* 

Another  large  shipper  of  rubber  footwear  informs  us 
that  goods  are  shipped  24  pairs  to  the  case,  each  pair  in  a 
carton,  and  wrapped  in  tissue.  The  lumber  is  %"  white 
pine,  and  the  effort  is  made  to  keep  the  case  as  light  as 
possible.  The  cases  are  not  sealed,  and  well-nailed  straps 
have  been  found  sufficient  protection  against  pilfering, 
although  every  effort  is  made  to  keep  identifying  marks 
off  the  cases.  Rubber  boots  are  packed  12  pairs  to  the 
case,  with  the  same  carton  and  tissue  covering  as  in  the 
case  of  rubber  shoes.  All  rubber  goods  go  as  measure- 
ment cargo.  In  the  case  of  shipments  to  Great  Britain  it 
has  been  found  unnecessary  to  strap  cases,  although  ship- 


558  EXPORT  PACKING 

ments  are  confined  to  one  or  two  of  the  largest  trans- 
Atlantic  lines. 

Cereals  in  Cartons.— A  large  manufacturer  and  ship- 
per writes  that  cereals  are  exported  both  in  cartons  and 
in  tins.  In  regard  to  former  packing  this  manufacturer 
states:  '^Packed  in  shells  or  cartons,  7  15/16"  x  414"  x 
3%",  made  from  .033  chipboard,  and  firmly  glued  on  both 
ends.  Wrappers  are  pasted  or  glued  all  over,  making  an 
air-tight  package.  The  packages  are  shipped  in  nailed 
and  wire-bound  cases,  36  packages  to  the  case,  and  weigh 
2  pounds  each.  The  nailed  case  has  %''  sides,  tops  and 
bottoms,  and  I/2"  ends,  each  end  having  two  outside 
cleats  2"  x  %",  running  the  full  depth  of  the  ends.  Wire- 
bound  cases  are  made  from  I14"  hardwood,  veneer,  and 
are  reenforced  on  sides  with  cleats  measuring  %"  x 
15/16",  which  run  full  length  and  depth  of  side.  There 
is  also  a  batten  2"  x  %"  down  the  center.  The  case  has 
four  14-gauge  wires  running  the  long  way  of  the  case,  and 
fastened  with  staples  3"  apart.  The  same  goods  are 
shipped  in  1-pound  packages,  72  packages  to  the  case,  in 
the  same  way.'' 

Confectionery  in  Cartons.— A  good  deal  of  American 
confectionery  of  various  descriptions  is  exported  in  car- 
tons, especially  to  such  nearby  markets  as  the  West 
Indies.  No  little  discrimination  seems,  however,  to  be 
called  for  in  determining  upon  carton  shipments  for  such 
products.  Unless  cases  are  lined  with  tin  and  hermetic- 
ally sealed,  it  would  seem  doubtful  that  the  confectionery 
in  cartons  would  arrive  in  desirable,  even  in  salable, 
condition  in  most  foreign  markets,  above  all  when  such 
shipments  have  to  pass  through  hot,  tropical  or  semi- 
tropical  waters.  Even  if  cartons  are  packed  in  her- 
metically sealed,  tin-lined  cases,  still  there  is  always  to  be 
remembered  the  possible  deterioration  of  the  confection- 
ery merely  through  the  effects  of  heat,  and  this  applies 
to  American  confectionery  more  than  any  other,  because 
of  the  use  by  our  manufacturers  of  cane  sugar,  or  more 
often  glucose,  neither  one  of  which  will  withstand  heat 
as  does  the  beet-root  sugar  usually  employed  by  Euro- 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  GOODS  IN  CARTONS  559 

pean  manufacturers  of  such  products.  ,  The  latter,  it  may 
be  said,  far  more  generally  employ  tins,  and  far  more  sel- 
dom utilize  the  carton,  than  do  American  manufacturers. 

An  exporter  of  confectionery  writes :  ^  *  Half-pound 
cakes  of  Oriental  chocolate  are  each  wrapped  in  tin  foil 
and  a  regular  trade  label,  as  used  in  the  stores  on  this 
side  of  the  water.  They  are  packed  in  7-pound  cardboard 
boxes,  and  if  necessary  to  make  the  cakes  fit  tightly,  cor- 
rugated paper  is  laid  between  them  and  the  sides  of  the 
box.  Sixteen  boxes  are  packed  in  each  case,  a  strong 
wooden  case  being  used,  and  the  cases,  except  as  noted 
below,  are  lined  with  waterproof  paper.  Net  weight,  112 
pounds ;  gross  weight,  about  140  pounds ;  size,  2.10  cubic 
feet. 

*  *  If  the  goods  are  being  shipped  to  a  very  hot  climate 
a  layer  of  tin  is  used  for  lining  instead  of  the  waterproof 
paper.  The  tin  is  made  to  the  inside  measure  of  the 
packing  case,  and  a  tin  cover  is  soldered  on,  so  that  it 
forms,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  a  tin  inner  case  fitting 
close  inside  the  wooden  case.  Cases  are  banded  with  two 
iron  straps  pulled  tight  and  nailed.'' 

Sundry  Cartoned  Goods.— An  example  of  the  mixed 
packing  of  different  kinds  and  sizes  of  goods  in  cartons 
may  be  noted  in  the  accompanying  reproduction  of  pho- 
tographs containing  lead  pencils  (see  pages  550,  555). 
It  will  be  noted  that  in  one  instance  pencils  are  all  of  one 
grade,  and  exactly  fill  the  case,  while  the  other  case  is  not 
filled,  and  the  open  spaces  have  been  stuffed  with  ex- 
celsior. 

An  illustration  of  the  packing  of  collapsible  tubes 
which  are  used  with  so  many  different  kinds  of  products, 
and  enclosed  in  cartons,  is  to  be  noted  in  the  photograph 
supplied  by  a  large  manufacturer  of  printers'  ink  which 
is  reproduced  on  page  555,  and  in  regard  to  which  the 
manufacturer  writes:  ** Ordinarily  one-quarter  and  one- 
half  pound  lots  of  ink  are  packed  in  collapsible  tubes. 
The  tubes  used  are  made  of  good  quality  burnished  metal, 
and  are  filled  on  a  special  tube  filling  machine,  after 
which  the  end  is  crimped  over  and  the  tube  is  labeled, 


560  EXPORT  PACKING 

presenting  the  appearance  as  seen  in  photograph,  where 
a  tube  is  shown  in  the  foreground.  Each  tube  is  then 
placed  in  a  printed  carton  and  the  carton 'filled  and 
solidly  packed  with  sawdust,  as  indicated  in  the  picture. 
Four  of  the  one-quarter  pound  tube  cartons  are  then 
placed  in  a  large  carton,  making  a  very  attractive  one- 
pound  package  composed  of  four  tubes,  each  in  its  sep- 
arate carton.  This  carton  is  shown  in  photograph.*' 
A  description  of  tlie  wooden  cases  employed  by  this  par- 
ticular manTlf acturer  is  given  under  the  head  of  printers ' 
ink  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  the  packing  of  tinned  goods. 

Examples  of  novelties  of  various  descriptions,  toys, 
etc.,  shipped  in  cartons,  and  the  packing  for  export  be- 
lieved desirable  in  such  instances,  are  to  be  observed  in 
three  photographs  (see  page  556).  The  shippers  describe 
their  packing  of  these  cases  for  shipment  in  the  following 
language:  **The  accompanying  photograph  shows  the 
packing  of  a  case  of  Christmas  tree  ornaments.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  cartons  are  divided  into  sections,  to 
minimize  the  risk  of  breakage.  These  cartons  must  be 
packed  into  the  outer  case  just  closely  enough  to  prevent 
jostling,  but  equal  care  must  be  taken  not  to  pack  too 
tightly.  Note  the  oil  paper  lining  of  the  case,  which  is 
always  used  for  export  when  anything  is  packed  that  may 
be  subject  to  damage  from  moisture. 

**  Another  photograph  illustrates  the  packing  of  a 
case  of  dolls,  which  are  very  breakable,  being  made  of 
plaster  pulp,  a  brittle  composition  containing  plaster  of 
Paris.  Each  doll  is  fitted  tightly  into  its  carton  with  cor- 
rugated paper  and  excelsior,  so  that  it  cannot  move. 
Enough  excelsior  is  used  in  each  carton  to  give  spring, 
should  the  case  be  dropped.  The  boxes  are  packed  in 
even  rows,  the  spaces  between  being  well  filled  with  ex- 
celsior. 

**The  third  photograph  shows  the  packing  of  toy 
sewing  machines,  each  in  an  individual  carton,  the  toys 
being  wrapped  in  paper.  A  thick  layer  of  excelsior  is 
placed  between  each  layer  of  cartons,  but  no  excelsior 
is  used  inside  of  the  cartons  themselves  to  guard  against 


EXPORT  PACKING  OF  GOODS  IN  CARTONS   561 

dust  injuring  the  mechanism  of  the  toys.  The  tilting  of 
the  case,  as  shown  in  the  photograph,  should  be  noted.'' 
This  shipper  states  that  nothing  except  dry  goods  is  ever 
packed  in  his  plant  without  tilting  the  case  or  barrel. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
EXPORT  SHIPMENTS  IN  BARRELS 

COMMODITIES  shipped  for  export  in  barrels  are 
almost  limitless  in  variety  and  include  some  kinds 
of  merchandise  for  which  the  use  of  barrels  in 
domestic  shipments  by  rail  within  our  own  borders  would 
arouse  no  end  of  astonishment.  Barreled  goods,  as  re- 
lated to  the  problem  of  export  packing,  comprise  not 
only  liquids  of  every  description,  from  alcohol  to  lubri- 
cating oils,  commodities  in  powdered  form,  from  flour 
to  chemicals,  and  commodities  in  solid  condition,  such  as 
rosin,  but  also  include  many  forms  of  hardware  prefer- 
ably shipped  for  export  in  barrels,  to  say  nothing  of  such 
products  as  wire  nails,  glass,  crockery  and  all  sorts  of 
products,  from  tobacco  to  sausage  casings. 

There  are  certain  quite  obvious  requirements  apply- 
ing to  the  overseas  transportation  of  barreled  goods  of 
any  description,  whether  in  tight  barrels  or  slack  barrels, 
or  whether  in  tierces,  half  barrels,  kegs  or  in  pails  or 
other  packages  to  be  classified  in  a  general  way  under 
the  heading  of  barrels.  Such  considerations  include,  for 
example,  protection  against  leakage  of  liquids  and  pro- 
tection against  siftin'g  of  powdered  contents.  Other 
things  to  be  considered  which  may  not  at  first  im- 
mediately suggest  themselves,  include  protection  against 
pilfering  of  contents  from  barrels,  for  valuable  contents 
may  be  pilfered  from  barrels  as  greedily  as  from  cases, 
and  even  in  shipments  of  such  a  commodity,  apparently 
far  from  tempting  to  thieves,  as  sausage  casings,  com- 
plaints have  been  received  from  abroad  of  extensive  pil- 
fering from  the  center  of  barrels. 

As  in  all  export  shipping,  manufacturers  or  others 
who  forward  their  goods  in  barrels,  ought  to  study  atten- 
tively conditions  in  the  markets  to  which  their  goods  are 

562 


EXPORT  SHIPMENTS  IN  BARRELS        563 

despatched,  as  this  may  possibly  affect  the  character  of 
barrels  to  be  shipped.  For  example,  there  are  some  for- 
eign countries  in  which  barrels,  when  emptied  of  their 
original  contents,  are  w^orth  more  locally  than  their 
original  cost  at  point  of  shipment.  Therefore,  there  is  a 
great  advantage  in  supplying  sufficiently  good  barrels  to 
ensure  their  arrival  in  good  condition  and  without  dam- 
age, in  order  that  the  buyers  of  the  merchandise  thus 
shipped  may  realize  highest  possible  prices  for  the  con- 
tainers, and  thus  be  better  pleased  with  the  merchandise 
and  with  the  services  of  the  American  concerns  from 
w^hom  purchases  have  been  made.  In  the  Amazon  district 
of  Brazil,  for  example,  it  has  been  said  that  oak  barrels 
with  hickory  hoops  are  worth  twice  as  much  as  they  cost 
in  New  York,  while  soft  w^ood  barrels  with  flat  hoops, 
arriving  with  heads  split,  are  worth  nothing  at  all  and 
more  than  once  have  caused  rejection  by  the  importer 
of  an  entire  shipment.  Parenthetically,  it  should  be 
noted  that  some  European  barrels,  particularly  barrels 
from  France,  command  considerably  higher  prices  at 
second  hand  than  do  American  barrels  at  second  hand, 
because  of  their  superior  quality  over  American  barrels. 
Furthermore,  the  protection  afforded  by  hardwood  bar- 
rels against  damage,  and  particularly  destruction  by 
rats  on  shipboard  or  while  lying  exposed  on  wharves,  is 
also  and  always  a  highly  important  consideration. 

Another  illustration  of  the  desirability  of  studying 
local  conditions  in  markets  to  which  barreled  goods  are 
shipped,  is  suggested  by  a  report  made  a  few  years  ago 
from  one  of  the  Central  American  republics  that  it  is 
often  advantageous  to  perforate  the  barrels  and  then  fill 
up  the  holes  soundly  so  as  effectively  to  prevent  the 
leakage  of  liquids  or  greases,  because  in  some  of  the 
Latin  American  republics  import  tariff  laws  impose  a 
duty  on  sound  and  water-tight  barrels  in  addition  to  the 
duty  on  their  contents,  and  the  duty  on  the  barrels  them- 
selves may  be  saved  if,  nominally  at  least,  the  barrels 
have  been  spoiled  by  the  perforations  which  have  been 
suggested.    However,  this  is  a  rather  fine  point  which 


564  EXPORT  PACKING 

requires  some  technical  study  because  barreled  goods 
are  quite  as  often  in  Latin  America  charged  import 
duties  on  the  basis  of  gross  weight.  Such  a  considera- 
tion as  this  supplies  another  argument  for  the  close  and 
intimate  consultation  of  manufacturer  or  exporter  with 
local  clients  in  each  foreign  market. 

Another  recommendation  which  has  been  made  by  a 
New  York  export  house  shipping  largely  to  the  Far  East 
is  that  in  all  shipments  of  oils  or  other  liquids  to  tropical 
countries,  or  by  steamships  passing  through  unusually 
hot  waters,  considerable  room  should  be  left  in  barrels 
for  the  expansion  of  the  liquids,  which  may  be  caused 
by  the  heat,  as  otherwise  leakage  is  sure  to  occur  and 
has  frequently  been  experienced  in  the  past.  Complaints 
as  to  the  leakage  of  liquids  are  by  no  means  rare  and  will 
frequently  appear  in  other  paragraphs  in  this  chapter. 
Some  steamship  companies,  according  to  the  New  York 
exporter  just  quoted,  have  of  late  refused  to  accept  dyes 
in  barrels  because  of  the  heavy  losses  incurred  from  sift- 
ing and  leakage  and  the  damage  done  to  neighboring 
cargo.  It  is"  said  that  the  greatest  number  of  complaints 
as  to  shipments  in  barrels  come  from  defective  "heading 
up,"  and  that  difficulties  experienced  are  much  more 
notable  in  barrels  that  have  not  been  completely  finished 
in  cooperages  and  made  to  be  filled  at  the  bung. 

Climatic  conditions  in  the  country  to  which  a  ship- 
ment may  be  destined,  or  seasonal  conditions  at  time  of 
shipment  and  at  time  of  expected  arrival  of  the  goods 
abroad,  may  require  consideration  by  exporters. 

Leakage  of  oils  when  shipped  in  the  winter  and  the 
contents  are  congealed  has  been  reported  as  only  three- 
quarters  of  1  per  cent,  whereas,  in  summer,  leakage  of 
the  same  oils  ranges  up  to  II/2  P^r  cent.  In  dry,  hot 
weather  the  wood  of  the  barrels  dries  out  and  iron  hoops 
sometimes  become  loosened  and  even  fall  off.  Facilities 
for  loading,  unloading  and  storage  at  port  of  shipment 
and  port  of  discharge  may  enter  into  this  question  also, 
since  it  is  clear  that  if  barrels  containing  liquids  are 
properly  sheltered  on  wharves  or  in  warehouses  from  the 


EXPORT  SHIPMENTS  IN  BARRELS        565 

direct  rays  of  a  very  hot  sun  considerable  reduction  in 
risk  from  leakage  is  likely  to  result. 

Considerable  difference  of  opinion  exists  among  ex- 
porters as  to  the  desirability  of  barrels  as  export  con- 
tainers. One  important  New  York  merchant  expresses 
the  opinion  in  a  letter  that  although  in  principle  barrels 
are  poor  containers,  yet  they  are  peculiarly  adapted  for 
the  shipment  of  such  articles  as  china  and  glassware, 
offering  better  protection  for  such  contents  than  could 
be  obtained  from  a  case  of  the  same  weight  and  size. 
This  exporter  further  remarks :  ^  *  In  packing  articles  in 
barrels,  however,  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  sifting 
or  leakage.  Reenforcing  the  heads,  lining  with  water- 
proof paper  (when  dry  contents  are  in  question)  and  con- 
structing them  with  tongued  and  grooved  staves  assist 
in  preventing  sifting.  Placing  extra  hoops  on  barrels 
containing  liquids  and  reenforcing  the  heads  are  addi- 
tional ways  of  guarding  against  leakage.'' 

However,  another  New  York  export  merchant  argues 
strongly  that  the  use  of  barrels  should  be  discouraged 
whenever  possible  in  export  shipments,  declaring  that 
there  is  an  immense  waste  of  space  in  packing,  and  that 
meats,  fruits,  chemicals,  in  fact,  all  kinds  of  merchandise 
should  be  by  preference  otherwise  packed  than  in  barrels. 
This  clearly  is  a  problem  which  each  manufacturer  must 
study  and  determine  for  himself  as  affecting  his  indi- 
vidual products  and  the  conditions  surrounding  his  pack- 
ing and  shipping. 

Illustrations  of  practice  and  policy  in  shipping  for 
export  in  barrels  will  certainly  be  of  interest  and  should 
offer  many  hints  and  suggestions  to  manufacturers.  Cer- 
tain typical  commodities  may  be  selected  in  this  connec- 
tion and  the  following  include  extracts  from  letters  of 
manufacturers  and  shippers  bearing  on  this  subject. 

Packing  House  Products.— The  great  variety  of  prod- 
ucts produced  and  exported  by  large  packing  houses  in 
Chicago  and  elsewhere  in  the  United  States,  involves  the 
use  of  all  kinds  of  packages,  among  them  barrels  possibly 
taking  first  place.    One  of  the  principal  American  pack- 


566  EXPORT  PACKING 

iiig  houses  sends  us  a  photograph  (see  cut  page  567),  and 
writes  as  follows  regarding  its  own  manufacture  of  the 
necessary  containers  of  this  description : 

**The  millions  of  barrels,  boxes,  pails,  tubs  and  other 
containers  used  by  us  annually  in  the  shipment  of  packing 
house  products  come  from  two  sources.  Pails  and  tubs, 
some  boxes  and  tin  cans  are  manufactured  by  the  com- 
pany. A  goodly  number  of  barrels,  boxes  and  cans  are 
purchased  from  outside  sources. 

**Many  packing  house  products  come  under  the  head- 
ing of  perishable  goods,  which  makes  it  important  that 
there  be  no  unnecessary  delays  in  shipping  them.  Fur- 
thermore, a  great  number  of  containers  are  required  each 
year.  In  view  of  these  two  facts,  it  has  been  natural  for 
this  company  to  establish  its  own  box,  barrel,  pail  and 
tin  can  shops,  because  in  so  doing  it  does  not  have  to 
depend  exclusively  upon  outside  sources  of  supply  for 
containers. 

**An  interesting  feature  of  this  story  on  containers 
for  packing  house  products  is  to  be  found  in  connection 
with  foreign  shipments  of  goods — the  types  of  containers 
and  the  way  they  are  built.  For  instance,  in  taking  care 
of  the  South  American  trade  we  ship  from  the  United 
States  a  great  many  barrels  in  the  form  of  shooks,  these 
shooks  being  reassembled  after  they  reach  the  various 
plants  in  the  Latin  American  countries.  By  shipping  the 
barrels  in  knocked-down  form,  a  great  deal  of  cargo  space 
can  be  saved.  By  shipping  the  shooks  instead  of  the  fin- 
ished barrels,  all  available  space  in  the  cargo  can  be 
utilized. 

'*  White  oak  shooks,  taking  a  34"  stave  and  holding 
around  54  gallons,  are  used  in  the  South  American  trade, 
which  required  150,000  to  200,000  barrels  a  year  during 
the  war. 

**As  for  the  principal  products  put  in  barrels,  among 
these  may  be  mentioned  lards,  oleo  oil,  greases,  fats,  tal- 
lows, various  kinds  of  meats,  and  fruit  juices. 

*^For  shipping  oleo  oil  and  lard  the  tierces  used  are 
made  from  white  or  red  oak,  with  34"  stave,  2V'  head, 


567 


Courtesy  of  Swijt  A  Co. 

Tierces  for  Provisions. 
Made  to  contain  either  pure  lard,  lard  compounds  or  oils.     Wood  is  carefully 
selected  oak  with  8  galvanised  iron  hoops,  well  driven  and  fastened. 


Courtesy  of  Swift  *(■  Co. 
Packing  op  Pickled  Meats. 
Meats  in  brine  are  packed  in  barrels,  half  barrels,  and  tierces.     Wood  is  care- 
fully selected.    Hoops  are  galvanized  iron  protecting  package  on  long  journeys  m 
tropical  climates. 

568 


EXPOBT  SHIPMENTS  IN  BARRELS        569 

and  six  steel  hoops.    Their  capacity  is  50  to  52  gallons. 

*' Thirty-gallon  barrels  are  principally  utilized  for 
pork.  These  are  constructed  of  ash,  with  30"  stave,  18" 
head  and  bound  with  six  galvanized  iron  hoops. 

**In  addition  to  these,  half  and  quarter  barrels,  with 
a  capacity  of  100  and  50  pounds,  respectively,  are  em- 
ployed. Before  the  war  250,000  half -barrels  of  spruce  a 
year  were  used  for  export  lard,  a  considerable  amount 
of  which  went  to  Germany. 

*^  Mince  meat  is  packed  in  100  and  150-pound  barrels, 
and  in  50-pound  tubs,  which  have  inside  dimensions  of 
14%"  at  the  top,  11-%"  at  the  bottom,  and  a  depth 
of  11  3/16". 

* '  The  shipments  of  casings  require  packages  of  20  to 
150  pounds  capacity,  the  larger  ones  being  of  white  oak, 
while  for  the  smaller  container  a  good,  tight,  hardwood 
package  is  used. 

**A11  of  the  foregoing  containers  are  in  the  class 
known  as  tight  barrels.  However,  for  the  exporting  of 
lard,  glue,  soap  and  similar  products,  containers  known 
as  slack  barrels  are  also  used.  These  barrels  come  in  two 
sizes,  having  30"  and  34"  staves,  the  larger  ones  being 
employed  for  glue.  About  150,000  barrels  of  each  size 
were  pressed  into  service  last  year. 

^*  These  slack  barrels  are  built  in  our  own  cooper  shop 
at  the  Union  Stock  Yards  in  Chicago.  About  250,000  lard 
half-barrels  are  also  turned  out  there  annually.  Slack 
cooper  shops  are  operated  at  most  of  the  other  packing 
plants  of  the  company,  stock  for  these  containers  being 
bought  on  the  open  markets  and  practically  the  entire 
output  of  a  large  Minnesota  company  is  required  each 
year.  This  company  manufactures  pails  and  tubs,  draw- 
ing on  the  basswood,  birch,  pine  and  other  Minnesota 
woods  for  jthe  material.  In  these  containers  are  shipped 
lard,  pork,  casings,  dressed  meat,  pigs'  feet,  soap,  jelly, 
sausage,  tripe  and  similar  packinghouse  products.  Lard 
pails  holding  from  one  to  fifty  pounds  are  manufactured 
in  the  Chicago  plant  having  a  capacity  of  60,000  of  these 
pails  a  day.'' 


570  EXPORT  PACKING 

Another  of  our  largest  shippers  of  provisions,  in 
writing  of  the  different  packages  in  which  the  company's 
products  are  exported,  calls  attention  to  cut  on  page  568, 
representing  a  tierce  or  large  barrel  in  which  pure  lard, 
lard  compound  or  oils  may  be  shipped.  This  is  made  of 
carefully  selected  oak,  is  free  as  possible  from  seed  or 
worm  holes,  and  is  protected  at  the  ends  with  galvanized 
iron  hoops  well  driven  and  fastened  so  that  they  cannot 
slip,  with  the  shrinkage  of  the  package,  which  they  are 
quite  certain  to  do  if  exposed  to  dry  heat,  with  consequent 
serious  leakage. 

Barrels  used  in  the  exporting  of  pickled  meat,  that  is, 
meat  in  brine,  include  half  barrels,  barrels  and  tierces, 
are  illustrated  in  cut  on  page  568.  The  wood  is  carefully 
selected  and  the  hoops  are  of  galvanized  iron  to  secure 
protection  in  long  journeys  to  interior  tropical  countries 
of  South  America. 

Some  European  importers  have  complained  of  certain 
American  shipments  of  lard  in  wooden  pails  where  the 
rims  of  the  pails  project  and  in  consequence  rub  against 
each  other  and  covers  are  frequently  loosened  or  even 
lost.  It  is  recommended  that  the  practice  of  the  larger 
packers  be  followed,  that  is,  that  the  cover  be  nailed 
inside  the  outer  rim  of  the  pail. 

Oils  in  Barrels.— A  prominent  exporter  of  cotton  oil 
writes:  **A11  of  our  oils  for  export  are  packed  in  hard- 
wood iron-bound  barrels.  In  normal  times  we  are  able 
to  guarantee  out-turn  weights  within  1  per  cent,  and  could 
do  it  today  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  owing  to  conges- 
tion in  certain  European  ports  ships  have  been  held  up 
indefinitely  or  the  oil  allowed  to  lie  on  the  wharves  for 
weeks  at  a  time  before  consignee  could. take  possession 
of  same.  This  has  been  a  war  condition  which  has  caused 
us  to  withdraw  any  guarantee  of  out-turn  weights,  but 
with  the  return  to  normal  conditions  we  are  of  the  opinion 
that  by  using  the  same  care  that  we  have  heretofore  in 
the  selection  of  our  cooperage  that  we  can  again  guaran- 
tee out-turn  weights.  Very  much  depends  on  the  manner 
of  stowing  the  oil  on  the  ship,  and  when  we  have  a  ship- 


EXPORT  SHIPMENTS  IN  BARRELS        571 

ment  of  any  importance  we  endeavor  to  have  one  of  our 
men  supervise,  for  our  own  protection,  the  stowing  of 
the  oil.'* 

Another  exporter  of  cotton  oil  says  that :  *  *  The  large 
percentage  of  cotton  seed  oil  shipped  abroad  goes  in 
strong,  hardwood,  export  barrels  which  carry  the  oil 
safely  to  destination ;  and,  as  this  package  has  been  used 
with  satisfaction  to  all  concerned  for  many  years,  there 
remains  very  little  to  be  said  about  it.  These  barrels  are 
made  of  thoroughly  seasoned  white  oak,  iron  bound,  and 
contain  about  375  to  380  pounds  net,  weight  about  450 
pounds  gross,  and  measure  about  12  cubic  feet. 

*'We  can  also  ship  in  any  size  barrel  required  or  can 
ship  the  oil  in  tins  of  any  style  or  size  either  plain  or 
decorated.  We  also  put  our  oil  up  in  the  French  style 
of  bottles,  quarts,  pints,  and  half  pints,  packing  any  num- 
ber to  the  case  that  may  be  required.'' 

European  importers  of  American  cotton  seed  oil  have 
recommended  that  care  be  taken  to  prevent  too  much 
absorption  of  the  oil  by  the  barrels,  through  leaving  con- 
tents too  long  in  the  containers  or  through  the  use  of 
shooks  which  are  too  new  or  of  too  soft  wood.  Top  covers 
of  barrels  containing  all  sorts  of  oils,  cotton  seed  oil  as 
well  as  mineral  oil,  sometimes  dry  up  and  crack  during 
the  voyage,  and  leakage  results. 

A  shipper  writes  in  regard  to  sundry  oils:  *^Our 
standard  package  for  shipments  of  coal  tar  oils  and  ben- 
zol is  a  110-gallon  drum,  weighing  about  175  pounds  for 
the  package  itself  and  measuring  31"  maximum  diameter 
by  41"  maximum  height.  In  special  cases  we  sometimes 
ship  wooden  barrels  and  once  in  a  great  while  we  employ 
two  5-gallon  cans  to  a  special  export  case,  but  in  general, 
as  above  stated,  the  standard  110-gallon  size  drum  is  the 
package  we  employ  on  such  shipments.*' 

Flour  in  Barrels.— Flour  exported  in  barrels  is 
shipped  in  a  variety  of  very  different  containers  depend- 
ing upon  the  market  of  destination,  but  even  more  upon 
the  wishes  and  instructions  of  the  customers.  The 
various  barrels  used  by  one  of  the  largest  exporters  of 


572  EXPORT  PACKING 

flour,  as  shown  in  cut  on  page  535,  include  the  following: 
Half  barrels  with  four  wire  and  four  flat  hoops;  half 
barrels  with  ten  flat  hoops ;  half  barrels  with  ten  hickory 
hoops.  Barrels  are  made  with  twelve  flat  hoops,  with 
four  wire  and  four  flat  hoops,  or  sometimes  with  twelve 
hickory  hoops.  This  flour  exporter  declares  that  he  has 
no  knowledge  of  why  his  customers  in  some  instances 
prefer  one  kind  of  barrel  and  in  other  instances  another 
kind.  He  follows  instructions  in  regard  to  all  the  kinds 
of  barrels  enumerated  as  suitable  for  export  purposes. 
However,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  some  of  the  barrels  shown 
in  the  photograph  supplied  (see  page  535)  have  re- 
enforced  heads,  others  no  such  additional  protection.  If 
that  protection  is  required  in  one  instance,  it  would  seem 
that  it  might  be  desirable  in  all  instances. 

A  large  New  York  concern  shipping  flour  chiefly  to 
Europe  urges  that  all  flour  barrels  be  lined  with  paper 
and  have  a  double  lining  at  top  and  bottom.  Only  in  this 
way,  it  is  stated,  can  satisfactory  shipment  be  ensured. 

Portland  Cement  in  Barrels.— The  American  practice 
in  exporting  cement  is  to  ship  in  barrels,  although  the 
common  British  practice  involves  almost  exclusively 
shipments  in  bags,  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  Brit- 
ish cement  enjoys  a  tremendous  sale  throughout  the 
world,  exceeding  the  volume  of  American  exports  of 
these  products  many  times  over.  This  fact  certainly  does 
not  arise  from  any  considerably  cheaper  first  costs  of 
cement  in  the  United  Kingdom  than  in  the  United  States, 
and  what  part  of  it  may  be  due  to  superior  British  ship- 
ping facilities  or  what  effect  on  delivery  costs  shipment 
in  bags  rather  than  barrels  may  have,  are  questions  which 
American  shippers  might  study  with  advantage.  It  is  a 
well  known  fact  that  superior  shipping  facilities  from 
Great  Britain,  at  least  as  they  existed  prior  to  the  great 
war,  enabled  British  exporters  frequently  to  forward 
cement  at  insignificant  freight  costs,  when  it  was  possible 
to  find  steamers  for  a  desired  destination  which  happened 
to  be  short  of  cargo  and  were  willing  to  take  cement  in 
bags  as  ballast  at  very  low  freight  rates. 


Courtesy  of  Edison  Portland  Cement  Co. 

Method  of  Packing  Cement. 

Special  export  package  devised  by  this  firm.  Note  that  statues  of  barrel  have 
been  removed  and  cement  is  standing  tcithotdt  support.  Dead  air  space  is  entirely 
eliminated. 


Courtesy  of  Lehigh  Portland  Cement  Co. 

Barrels  Used  for  Cement  Shipment. 

(Left)  Staves  are  tongued  and  grooved.  Barrels  reen forced  with  steel  hoops 
and  lined  with  waterproof  paper.  (Right)  Note  method  of  reenforcing  head  of 
barrel. 


573 


Courtesy  of  Atlas  Portland  Cement  Co. 

Construction  of  Barrel. 

Shows  use  of  harrel-raising  machine.  Stares  are  set  up  in  circular  form 
and  head  placed  in  form  at  bottom.  Top  is  drawn  together  by  wire  frame  and 
head  hoops  adjusted,  then  barrel  is  placed  over  heater. 


Courtesy  of  Atlas  Portland   Cement   Co. 

Method  of  Tightening  Barrel  Hoops. 
Shores    trussing    machine   tchich    automatically    drires    hoops    into    place    and 


tightens  barrel 

574 


EXPORT  SHIPMENTS  IN  BARRELS        575 

The  reports  of  the  Department  of  Commerce,  of  the 
United  States,  show  that  in  1919  there  were  exported 
some  2,463,689  barrels  of  hydraulic  cement  valued  at 
$7,516,019.  At  present,  exports  of  American  hydraulic 
cement  are  chiefly  to  Latin  America,  but  the  writer  knows 
of  certain  aggressive  plans  now  being  carried  out  by 
manufacturers  that  will  doubtless  increase  very  mate- 
rially the  export  volume  of  this  commodity. 

A  cement  manufacturing  company,  prominent  in  ex- 
port shipping,  sends  a  photograph  of  a  special  export 
package  which  it  has  devised  for  its  own  shipments  (see 
cut  page  578)  and  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
staves  of  the  barrel  have  been  removed  and  that  the 
cement  is  standing  without  support,  this  being  due  to  the 
fact  that  dead  air  space  has  been  entirely  eliminated,  re- 
ducing the  possibility  of  breakage  of  the  barrel  to  a 
minimum.  The  cement  on  the  top  of  the  barrel  has  been 
loosened  with  the  finger  which  shows  that  this  process 
of  compacting  does  not  cause  the  cement  to  cake. 

Before  the  package  illustrated  was  determined  on  a 
most  elaborate  series  of  experiments  were  made  with 
barrels  filled  with  cement,  and  these  experiments  covered 
the  travels  of  the  barrel,  from  the  time  it  left  the  mill 
until  the  cement  was  removed  for  construction  purposes 
in  some  distant  country.  All  the  shocks,  strains,  drops, 
vibrations,  knocks  and  jolts  of  loading  into  the  freight 
car;  the  handling  incident  to  lightering,  including  the 
severe  drop  from  the  sling  to  the  vessel's  hold ;  the  move- 
ment of  the  barrels  during  the  ocean  voyage  as  well  as 
the  unloading  at  the  port  of  destination  and  transporta- 
tion from  that  point,  were  carefully  investigated. 

From  the  correspondence  in  the  above  case,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  method  of  compressed  packing  followed  has 
produced  satisfactory  results.  However,  other  prom- 
inent shippers  and  manufacturers  of  cement  are  satisfied 
to  send  their  goods  abroad  by  filling  the  barrels  in  the 
usual  way,  merely  tapping  the  barrel  in  order  to  settle 
the  contents.  This  method  seems  to  give  egually  satis- 
factory results. 


576  EXPORT  PACKING 

Another  large  company  writes :  **  We  believe  we  have 
perfected  a  barrel  which  assures,  under  normal  condi- 
tions, safe  transportation  to  destination. 

**We  have  erected,  solely  for  the  benefit  of  our  foreign 
trade,  our  own  cooperage  plant  .which  is  equipped  with 
the  most  efficient  machinery  made  for  the  manufacture  of 
cement  barrels.  By  this  process  the  staves  are  tongued 
and  grooved  and  the  barrels  heavily  reenf orced  with  steel 
hoops,  while  additional  reenforcements  are  provided  for 
the  head.  Every  barrel  is  carefully  lined  with  water- 
proof paper  so  that  the  cement  is  protected  against  any 
possible  damage  from  moisture  while  in  transit.  (See 
cuts  page  573.) 

*  *  In  shipping  Portland  cement  you  can  readily  under- 
stand the  necessity  for  perfect  packing.  Cement  is 
ground  so  fine  that  a  minimum  of  78  per  cent  must  go 
through  a  200-mesh  screen,  with  40,000  holes  to  the 
square  inch.  This  makes  a  product  almost  finer  than 
water  and  unless  our  barrels  are  in  good  shape,  it  would 
naturally  mean  sifting,  breaking  and  a  dissatisfied  cus- 
tomer at  the  other  end. 

**We  purchase  sawed  oak  staves  one-half  inch  thick, 
and  prior  to  their  entering  the  cooperage  they  are  kiln 
dried.  The  duration  of  drying  is  entirely  dependent  upon 
the  condition  of  the  staves  at  the  time  they  are  being 
prepared  for  use.  After  leaving  the  kiln  the  staves  are 
carefully  inspected  and  only  such  material  as  passes  a 
most  rigid  inspection  enters  the  cooperage.  These  staves 
are  then  put  through  the  various  machines,  first  cutting 
to  lengths,  second  slotting  the  ends  to  provide  for  the 
barrel  heads,  trimming  the  edges,  placing  tongues  and 
grooves  along  the  edge  of  each  stave,  etc. 

'^We  purchase  I51/2"  yellow  pine  heads  one-half  inch 
thick,  cut  and  beveled  ready  for  use.  Our  hoop  material 
is  received  in  rolls  and  at  our  own  cooperage  the  material 
is  cut  to  lengths,  punched,  riveted  and  stretched  to  con- 
form to  the  bilge  of  the  barrel. 

^*The  staves  are  set  up  in  a  form  around  the  barrel 
bottom  and  are  drawn  together  by  means  of  a  cable  after 


EXPORT  SHIPMENTS  IN  BARRELS        577 

which  temporary  hoops  are  placed  over  each  end.  The 
barrels  are  then  placed  over  a  slow  coal  fire  heating  drum 
which  gives  their  permanent  shape.  From  the  drums  the 
barrels  go  to  the  heading  machine  where  the  heads  are 
placed.  The  permanent  hoops  follow  and  are  driven  into 
place  by  machine,  right  after  which  the  barrels  are  deliv- 
ered to  the  nailing  machine  where  the  hoops  are  secured 
in  position.  The  finished  barrels  then  go  to  the  labeling 
and  stenciling  department  after  careful  inspection,  and 
are  then  delivered  to  the  filling  department  where  the 
head  is  removed,  the  barrel  lined  with  a  glazed  water- 
proof paper,  filled  and  reheaded. 

**This  is,  of  course,  a  brief  description,  but  gives  the 
main  processes  entered  into  in  our  cooperage  plant  where 
we  have  a  capacity  of  5,000  barrels  a  day.*' 

A  third  large  exporter  sends  photographs  (see  pages 
574,  579),  and  writes:  ^^In  the  manufacture  of  barrels 
for  our  cement  there  are  used  from  16  to  18  wooden 
staves,  depending  upon  the  width,  of  one-half  inch  thick- 
ness, heading  16"  in  diameter,  and  all  barrels  are  hooped 
with  four  steel  hoops.  The  heads  are  reenforced  by  head 
stiffeners,  or  what  are  known  as  export  strips. 

'^In  the  manufacture  of  these  barrels,  the  staves, 
when  received  in  carload  lots,  are  placed  in  large  dryers 
and  thoroughly  dried.  This  requires  from  several  days 
to  a  week,  depending  on  the  condition  of  the  staves  when 
received. 

**  After  drying,  all  staves  are  taken  to  the  cooper 
shops  and  put  through"  crozing  machines  which  chamfer 
the  ends  and  cut  the  grooves  which  hold  the  heads  in 
place.  They  are  then  delivered  to  the  setting  up  or 
raising  machines,  where  they  are  made  up  in  barrel  shape 
in  the  following  manner : 

**The  staves  are  set  up  in  a  circular  form  and  a  head 
is  placed  in  the  form  at  the  bottom.  The  top  is  then 
drawn  together  by  means  of  a  wire  frame  and  the  head 
hoops  placed  around  it,  after  which  the  barrel  is  placed 
over  a  heater  which  keeps  the  barrel  in  shape  and  helps 
to  further  drv  it. 


578  EXPORT  PACKING 

* '  From  the  heater,  the  barrels  are  sent  to  the  tappers 
who  slip  two  bilge  hoops  thereon.  These  tappers  also 
examine  the  barrels  to  see  if  there  are  any  broken  staves, 
knot  holes  or  other  defects,  and  if  any  are  detected  the 
barrels  are  returned  to  the  setting  up  machines  for 
replacement. 

**  After  inspection  the  barrels  are  run  through  the 
trussing  machines,  where  the  hoops  are  automatically 
driven  in  place,  and  the  barrel  is  made  tight.  Here  again 
any  barrels  that  develop  any  defects  are  thrown  out. 

^*  Beyond  this  machine  are  the  trimmers  who  place 
the  export  strip  on  the  outside  of  the  end  of  the  barrel 
which  is  headed.  This  export  strip  is  nailed  in  place  and 
further  strengthened  by  a  piece  of  angle  iron  on  each 
end  which  extends  over  the  edge  and  is  thoroughly  nailed. 

**In  this  condition  the  barrels  are  transferred  to  the 
packing  houses  to  be  filled  with  cement,  after  which  the 
second  head  is  put  in  place  and  another  export  strip 
fastened  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  one  previously  put 
on.  Here  also  head  liners  are  nailed  in  place  and  all 
marking  for  shipment  is  done.  Our  standard  barrels  are 
absolutely  uniform  in  size  and  the  quality  is  as  near  per- 
fect as  is  possible  to  make  them,  rigid  inspection  being 
enforced  at  all  times.'* 

Iron  and  Steel  Products  in  Barrels  and  Kegs.— A 
typical  example  of  export  shipment  of  iron  and  steel 
products  is  found  in  the  large  foreign  business  which 
manufacturers  of  wire  nails  enjoy.  A  large  shipper 
states:  *^We  use  a  lining  of  heavy  waterproof  tar  paper 
which  protects  the  nails  from  moisture.  We  put  a  steel 
cleat  on  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  keg.  This  makes  a 
very  substantial  packing  and  the  complaints  of  broken 
packages  are  nil.''    (See  cut  page  579.) 

A  house  making  a  specialty  of  the  manufacture  of 
wire  products  gives  the  following  data  in  reference  to  its 
export  shipment:  Steel  wire  nails  are  packed  in  strong 
wooden  kegs  lined  with  pitch  paper  and  bound  securely 
with  special  steel  hoops.  All  kegs  have  steel  cleats  on 
the  ends  as  an  additional  protection  against  damage  by 


(JuurtAsy  oj  Atlas  I'urthind   Ccmcut   Co. 

Completed  Cement  Barrel. 

Constructed  of  16   to  18  wooden  atavea,   Vj"  thick,  heading  16"  in  diameter. 
All  barrels  are  rccnforccd  with  k  steel  hoops,  and  head  stiffcncrs. 


Couritsy  oj  rutsburgh  Steel  Co. 

Packing  of  Wire  Nails. 

steel  wire  nails  are  packed  in  strong  wooden  kegs  lined  with  pitch  paper  and 
bound  securely  with  special  steel  hoops.  Kegs  hare  steel  cleats  on  ends  as 
additional  protection  against  damage  by  rough  handling  during  transhipment. 

579 


Courtesy  of  Col.  J.  N.  Wolfson. 
Results  of  Poor  Packing. 

Kegs  containing  bolts  and  nuts  weighing  two  to  three  pounds  each,  the  hands 
of  the  kegs  being  missing  on  arrival  at  Manila. 


Courtesy  of  E.  R.  Squibb  and  Sons. 
Drugs  and  Chemicals  in  Barrels. 

An  export  drum,  light  in  weight  but  very  firm,  containing  100  lbs.  of  boric 
acid  powder.     Note  strong  paper  lining. 


580 


EXPORT  SHIPMENTS  IN  BARRELS        581 

rough  handling  during  transhipment.  The  kegs  contain 
nails  usually  weighing  100  pounds,  112  pounds  and  1331/3 
pounds  net.  Nails  are  also  furnished  in  kegs  weighing 
from  45  to  99  pounds  net,  or  in  cardboard  lined  jute  can- 
vas bags  weighing  56  pounds  or  112  pounds  each,  gross 
weight.  However,  kegs  and  bags  of  special  weight  can 
also  be  furnished. 

Blued  lath  nails  are  packed  in  kegs  which  are  care- 
fully lined  with  special  antiseptic  paper.  This  insures 
the  receipt  of  the  nails  by  the  consumer  in  the  same  per- 
fectly sanitary  condition  in  which  these  sterilized  nails 
leave  the  mills.  Lathers  and  others  who  carry  nails  in 
their  mouths  are  thus  protected,  as  the  nails  are  kept  free 
from  all  injurious  substances  from  the  moment  of  their 
complete  sterilization  until  the  keg  is  opened  by  the 
consumer. 

Complaints  of  foreign  buyers  of  American  wire  nails 
are  chiefly  directed  against  the  use  of  kegs  of  too  light 
weight,  which  sometimes  burst  in  transit;  and  perhaps 
criticism  is  even  more  frequent  of  the  insecurity  of  the 
fastening  of  the  heads  of  the  kegs  which  are  quite  often 
broken. 

A  prominent  manufacturer  of  chain  always  ships  his 
products  up  to  1-inch  in  heavy  oil  barrels  well  coopered. 
Another  manufacturer,  when  shipping  in  barrels,  always 
lines  them  with  waterproof  paper  and  sprinkles  over  the 
chain  a  non-hydrating  product  in  order  to  prevent  rust  in 
transit.  When  heavy  commodity  like  chain  is  shipped  in 
barrels,  care  should  be  taken  to  use  small  sizes  of  barrels 
when  shipping  to  the  West  Coast  of  South  America  or 
other  points  where  landing  facilities  are  not  of  the  best. 

Wire  finer  than  No.  30  gauge,  tinned  wire,  lacquer 
finish  or  light  coppered  and  annealed  wire  are  usually 
packed  in  strong  barrels  made  from  gum  staves,  reen- 
forced  with  wire  hoops  and  special  cleats  on  each  head 
for  additional  protection.  The  barrels  are  lined  with 
heavy  tarred  paper ;  then  strong  packing  or  kraf t  paper, 
each  coil  of  wire  being  paper  wrapped. 

Merchandise  to  the  value  of  $25,000  to  $30,000  was 


582  •       EXPORT  PACKING 

recently  reported  as  lying  unclaimed  in  the  custom  house 
at  Manila  because  arriving  without  means  of  identifica- 
tion owing  to  the  mutilation  or  destruction  of  frail  con- 
tainers. Note  in  the  accompanying  photograph  (page 
580)  several  kegs  which  contain  bolts  and  nuts  weighing 
two  to  three  pounds  each,  bands  of  the  kegs  being  missing 
and  the  heads  broken. 

A  large  New  York  exporter  shipping  to  the  Dutch 
East  Indies  comments  on  shipments  of  bolts,  nuts  and 
rivets  in  barrels  which  are  too  light  for  their  contents. 
He  believes  that  this  sort  of  merchandise  should  be 
shipped  in  packages  weighing  not  more  than  200  pounds, 
and  in  barrels,  because  of  the  great  extra  charge  for 
shipments  in  boxes. 

A  New  York  firm  shipping  to  Japan  complains  that 
shipments  of  box  strapping  have  been  received  packed 
600  pounds  in  a  light  sugar  barrel.  This  firm  states 
that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  roll  a  sugar  barrel  containing 
this  weight  of  steel  across  a  room  without  practically 
destroying  the  container.  It  is  easy  to  imagine,  there- 
fore, the  condition  of  such  a  shipment  after  being  handled 
three  or  four  times,  particularly  in  the  loading  slings  of 
an  ocean  carrier.  Only  the  heaviest  hardwood  barrels  are 
strong  enough  for  600  pounds  of  contents. 

An  exporter  gives  the  following  details  of  his  ship- 
ments: **We  make  large  quantities  of  spring  steel  which 
we  furnish  in  coils  wound  ribbon  fashion,  each  coil  weigh- 
ing approximately  60  to  80  pounds.  This  material  is 
oiled,  wrapped  in  paper  and  then  packed  in  oil  barrels, 
as  we  have  found  that  oil  barrels  make  the  best  package 
for  export;  for  a  box,  no  matter  how  strongly  it  is  reen- 
forced,  if  dropped  from  a  wagon  on  the  corner,  will  come 
apart.  Furthermore,  a  box  is  frequently  made  of  green 
wood  and  when  put  into  the  hold  of  the  vessel  becomes 
damp  and  often  rusts  the  steel,  whereas  the  oil  barrels 
are  made  of  heavy  oak,  properly  dried  and  seasoned,  and 
on  account  of  having  contained  oil  are  more  nearly  rust- 
proof than  any  package  we  know  of  and  they  are  further- 
more very  strong.    We  can  pack  in  each  barrel  about  a 


EXPORT  SHIPMENTS  IN  BARRELS        583 

thousand  pounds  and  the  barrel  can  be  rolled  and  there- 
fore handled  much  easier  than  a  box  weighing  consider- 
ably less.'' 

In  connection  with  shipments  of  such  commodities,  the 
following  specifications  issued  by  the  General  Engineer 
Depot  of  the  United  States  Army  are  to  be  noted: 
^'Hardware,  nails,  bolts,  etc.,  should  be  packed  in  small 
cases  or  kegs  made  of  first  class  material  with  heads 
reenforced  by  double  heads,  flush  with  the  chime,  with 
grain  in  the  heads  at  right  angles,  well  nailed  together, 
banded  with  not  less  than  four  straps  %"x  .015  inch,  se- 
cured in  place  by  removing  the  two  outer  hoops,  drawing 
the  straps  down  and  fastening  them  beyond  the  two 
hoops,  after  which  the  two  hoops  are  replaced  and  se- 
cured in  position. 

**  Alternatively,  the  heads  shall  be  secured  by  small 
strips  of  wood  around  the  edge,  called  *head  lining,*  a 
steel  cleat,  meeting  the  approval  of  the  Depot,  crossing 
the  grain  of  the  head  and  supporting  it,  such  cleat  to 
have  ends  extending  under  the  end  band  and  well  down 
the  sides  and  well  secured.'' 

^^  Where  practicable  the  weight  of  the  keg  and  its  con- 
tents shall  be  under  125  pounds. 

^'For  steel  products,  oil  barrels,  or  equal,  shall  be 
used. 

**Wood  filling  will  fill  the  end  level  with  the  chime  and 
support  it,  its  direction  shall  be  across  the  board  of  the 
head.  Inside  the  head  a  second  head  shall  be  placed,  1%" 
thick,  its  boards  extending  at  right  angles  to  the  boards 
of  the  head.  The  heads  shall  be  carefully  secured  to  the 
sides,  at  least  three  bands  1"  x  .030  inch  will  cross  the 
head  and  be  secured  under  two  hoops  at  each  end  and  to 
the  sides. 

Sundry  Products  in  Barrels.— Manufacturers  of  drugs 
and  chemicals  ship  such  powdered  materials  as  boric  acid 
in  light  but  very  strong  export. drums,  so-called,  which 
are  really  straight-sided  barrels.  In  such  cases  a  strong 
paper  lining  is  used,  as  illustrated  in  photograph  repro- 
duced on  page  580. 


584  EXPORT  PACKING 

Other  chemicals  shipped  in  barrels  include,  for  ex- 
ample, acetic  acid,  shipped  in  barrels  usually  weighing 
about  490  pounds  gross,  78  pounds  tare,  412  pounds  net, 
measurements  being  211/2"  head,  25"  bilge  and  34"  height. 

Soda  ash  is  packed  in  barrels  having  elm  and  gum 
staves,  hardwood  heads,  and  steel  and  iron  hoops,  lined 
with  crinkly  paper  bags  with  heads  reenforced  by  a  strip 
of  hard  pine  across  the  heads  and  strapped  on  with  steel 
straps.    It  is  also  sometimes  shipped  in  bags. 

All  dry  acids,  aniline  dyes,  potash*  and,  in  general, 
chemicals  in  the  dry  state  when  shipped  in  barrels  or 
casks,  should  be  protected  by  linings  of  strong  tough 
paper. 

What  are  sometimes  called  rough  products  shipped 
in  barrels  include  glucose,  where  expansion  of  the  con- 
tents and  consequent  leakage  is  to  be  guarded  against  by 
especially  strong  hoops.  Rosin  barrels  ought  to  be 
stronger  than  they  sometimes  are  and  special  attention 
given  to  the  heading.  Old  barrels  ought  not  to  be  used 
for  rosin  and  some  attention  ought  to  be  paid  to  the  use 
of  lighter  barrels  than  those  sometimes  employed,  in  view 
of  complaints  received  of  excessive  tare  on  this  American 
product  in  comparison  with  rosin  received  from  other 
sources.  Complaint  is  also  made  of  the  shipment  of 
American  plaster  to  Australia,  the  barrels  often  not  being 
sufficiently  strong  and  arriving  in  bad  condition.  In  ship- 
ments of  tobacco  it  has  been  observed  that  the  wood 
employed  was  hastily  dried,  making  it  quite  brittle, 
and  as  the  contents  are  heavy  it  is  not  surprising  that 
barrels  frequently  reach  destinations  in  damaged  con- 
dition. More  hoops  and  T)f  a  better  grade  may  profitably 
be  employed  and  special  attention  given  to  the  heading 
up  of  the  barrels. 

Cut  glass  is  usually  packed  in  barrels  because  it  is  so 
heavy.  To  contain  the  contents  of  a  barrel  weighing  26 
pounds  a  box  weighing  about  60  pounds  is  necessary. 
Furthermore,  a  manufacturer  argues,  the  danger  of 
breakage  is  less  when  barrels  are  used  because  they  are 
easier  to  handle,  and  because  if  dropped  there  is  only  one 


<'<,iirfrgy  of  Oeo.  Bargfeldt  d  Co. 
METifOD  OF  Packing  Cut  Glass. 

Packed  in  bnrrtls  because  of  its  weight.  Danger  of  breakage  is  less  than  if 
packed  in  case  xince  if  barrel  is  dropped  there  is  only  point  of  contact  with 
ground.  Barrels  are  tipped  for  ease  in  packing  by  tilting  in  box  containing 
slanting  board  as  rest. 


Courtesy  of  Joseph  Dixon  Crucible  Co. 

Packing  of  Flake  Graphite. 

Barrels  are  first  lined  with  double  paper  lining,  after  which  graphite  is  put 
in  and  paper  folded  over  top.  Top  of  barrel  is  put  on  and  double  cross  heads 
as  shaken  are  nailed  on  both  top  and  bottom,  iitraps  of  barrel  hoop  iron  are 
bound  around  barrel  and  over  cross  heads. 

585 


Courtesy  of  Joavvh   h 
Packing  of  Graphite  Crucibles. 


I)U      (0. 


Nested    in   thick    cushions    of    out    straw,   which    possesses    maximum    spring. 
Straw  is  carefully  tamped  down. 


Courtesy  of  Joseph  Dixon  Crucible  Co. 

Packing  op  Graphite  Facings. 

The    general    method    of   packing   is    similar   to    that    used    in    packing    flake 
graphite. 


586 


EXPORT  SHIPMENTS  IN  BARRELS        587 

point  of  contact  with  the  ground  instead  of  many.  For 
ease  in  packing,  barrels  are  tilted  into  a  box  containing  a 
slanting  board,  which  acts  as  a  rest,  as  illustrated  in 
photograph  on  page  585. 

It  is  needless  to  remark  that  the  very  greatest  care 
should  be  taken  in  packing  any  kind  of  glassware  to  see 
that  hay,  straw  or  other  packing  materials  perfectly  sepa- 
rate each  article  and  that  a  heavy  cushion  of  such  mate- 
rials protects  the  contents  from  sides  and  heads  of  the 
barrels.  China  and  crockery  may  be  wrapped  in  tissue 
paper  before  being  packed  and,  if  very  delicate,  in  cor- 
rugated paper  sleeves  before  being  imbedded  in  the 
cushioning  material  in  barrels.  In  this  general  regard 
much  fuller  information  will  be  found  in  the  special  chap- 
ter in  this  volume  devoted  to  the  packing  of  glass  and 
fragile  goods  in  general. 

Incandescent  electric  lamps  have  been  shipped  by 
Dutch  manufacturers  in  hogsheads  containing  from  400 
to  500  lamps  each.  These  were  packed  as  follows :  First 
a  layer  of  straw  was  placed  on  the  bottom  of  the  cask; 
the  lamps,  enclosed  in  a  corrugated  sleeve  and  a  paper 
wrapper,  were  placed  on  end ;  over  them  a  light  layer  of 
straw  and  a  corrugated  board,  then  another  layer  of 
straw,  another  layer  of  lamps,  and  so  on,  the  sides  of  the 
casks  being  lightly  lined.  In  addition  to  the  interior 
packing,  a  twisted  straw  rope  was  placed  on  each  end  of 
the  cask  to  serve  as  a  buffer  and  absorb  shocks.  The 
advantage  of  packing  in  hogsheads  is  believed  to  consist 
in  the  saving  of  considerable  freight  charges  when  large 
quantities  are  shipped,  although  it  is  confessed  that 
Dutch  packing  is  not  so  advantageous  as  American  pack- 
ing for  rehandling  and  distributing  to  dealers  in  other 
countries. 

A  domestic  practice  which  ought  not  to  be  carried  into 
the  export  trade  is  found  in  the  practices  of  some  manu- 
facturers of  leather  counters  or  stiffenings  for  shoes, 
which  are  shipped  in  barrels  with  one  head  only,  the 
other  being  merely  covered  by  a  single  or  possibly  a 
double  thickness  of  burlap.     This  is  not  a  satisfactory 


588  EXPORT  PACKING 

method  of  shipping  any  products  whatsoever  by  ocean 
steamship  to  foreign  countries.  There  is  the  greatest 
danger  of  the  burlap  top  being  torn  and  contents  being 
lost. 

A  large  manufacturer  of  graphite  products  submits 
photographs  showing  packing  in  barrels  which  appear 
on  pages  585,  586.  One  of  these  is  a  barrel  containing 
flake  graphite.  The  barrel  is  first  lined  with  double 
paper  lining,  the  graphite  put  in  and  paper  folded  over 
the  top  of  the  contents;  the  barrel  is  reenforced  with 
double  cross-heads,  nailed  top  and  bottom,  over  which 
and  around  the  barrel  extend  straps  of  hoop  iron.  An- 
other photograph  shows  graphite  crucibles  packed  in 
hogsheads,  very  carefully  nested  in  thick  cushions  of 
oat  straw,  which  is  found  to  have  more  spring  in  it  and 
to  afford  much  better  protection  against  breakage.  This 
straw  packing  is  tamped  down  and  made  very  solid.  Yet 
another  photograph  supplied  by  this  manufacturer  shows 
a  barrel  containing  graphite  facings.  It  is  double  lined 
with  paper  and  the  heads  are  protected  with  double  cross- 
heads  reenforced  with  strap  iron. 

Specifications  for  Barrel  Containers.— The  following 
regulations  prescribed  by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission for  shipments  in  bulk  in  wooden  barrels,  half 
barrels  and  kegs,  while  designed  to  apply  to  domestic 
shipments  of  inflammable  liquids,  may  yet  be  recom- 
mended as  generally  desirable  practice  for  all  kinds  of 
liquids  for  export  shipments: 

**  Material  from  which  the  barrel,  half  barrel,  or  keg 
is  constructed  must  be  oak,  or  other  suitable  hardwood, 
thoroughly  kiln  jiried ;  provided  that  kegs  of  a  capacity 
not  greater  than  18  gallons  may  be  constructed  of  soft 
wood  if  the  thickness  of  staves  and  heads  is  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  greater  than  that  required  for  the  oak  kegs. 

'*The  staves  and  heads  must  be  not  less  than  the  fol- 
lowing thickness  when  the  barrel,  half  barrel,  or  keg  is 
finished : 

**For  barrels  (capacity  over  32  gallons  and  not  over 
55  gallons),  11/16  inch. 


EXPORT  SHIPMENTS  IN  BARRELS        589 

*^For  half  barrels  and  kegs  (capacity  over  18  gallons 
and  not  over  32  gallons),  %  inch. 

**For  kegs  (capacity  5  gallons  and  not  over  18  gal- 
lons), 9/16  inch. 

**For  kegs  (capacity  under  5  gallons),  %  inch. 

*"rhe  hoops  must  not  be  less  in  number  nor  smaller  in 
size  than  the  following:  For  barrels  (capacity  over  32 
gallons  and  not  over  55  gallons),  six  hoops :  Head  hoops, 
1  11/16  inches  by  17  gauge ;  quarter  hoops,  1  7/16  inches 
by  18  gauge ;  bilge  hoops,  1 11/16  inches  by  17  gauge. 

**For  ha4f  barrels  and  kegs  (capacity  over  18  gallons 
and  not  over  32  gallons),  six  hoops:  Head  hoops,  II/2 
inches  by  19  gauge ;  other  hoops,  I14  inches  by  19  gauge. 

*'For  kegs  (capacity  5  gallons  and  not  over  18  gal- 
lons), six  hoops:  Head  hoops,  I14  inches  by  19  gauge; 
other  hoops,  IVs  inches  by  19  gauge. 

*'For  kegs  (capacity  under  5  gallons),  four  hoops: 
Head  hoops,  1  inch  by  20  gauge ;  other  hoops,  Yg  inch  by 
21  gauge. 

*^Bungholes  and  other  openings  must  be  provided 
with  secure  closing  devices  that  will  not  permit  leakage 
through  them.  Compressed,  tapered  wooden  bungs  must 
be  covered  with  a  suitable  coating  and  must  have  a  driv- 
ing fit  into  a  tapered  hole.  They  should  be  soaked  in  hot 
water  for  about  one  minute  before  driving  into  the 
bunghole. 

**The  barrels,  half  barrels  and  kegs  must  be  coated 
on  the  inside  with  glue,  asphaltum,  or  other  coating  suit- 
able to  prevention  of  leakage  of  the  contents.  When 
glued,  there  must  be  used  at  least  two  coats  of  good  com- 
mercial glue  so  as  to  insure  a  uniform  covering  of  the 
inside  surface  and  averaging  in  total  at  least  one-half 
pound  to  each  barrel,  and  for  half  barrels  and  kegs  an 
amount  proportional  to  their  inside  surfaces. 

*  *  Barrels,  half  barrels  and  kegs  which  have  been  used 
at  least  once  must  be  thoroughly  recoopered  when  neces- 
sary, and  must  be  reglued  with  at  least  one  coat  of  glue 
before  each  refilling.  Badly  bulged  or  warped  heads 
must  be  replaced. 


590  EXPORT  PACKING 

*' All  slack  barrels,  half  barrels,  and  kegs  are  divided 
into  classes  limited  both^as  to  capacity  and  weight  of 
contents  as  follows : 

**  Class  A.  Capacity  not  over  10  gallons,  and  to  con- 
tain not  over  100  pounds  net  weight. 

**  Class  B.  Capacity  not  more  than  17  gallons,  and  to 
contain  not  over  150  pounds  net  weight.  The  average 
container  of  this  class  is  the  ordinary  12 1/^  by  18  inches 
keg. 

**  Class  C.  Capacity  not  more  than  25  gallons,  and  to 
contain  not  over  200  pounds  net  weight.  The  average 
container  of  this  class  is  the  ordinary  half  flour  barrel, 
131/2  by  24  inches. 

**  Class  D.  Capacity  not  more  than  35  gallons,  and  to 
contain  not  over  400  pounds  net  weight.  The  average 
container  of  this  class  is  the  ordinary  flour  barrel,  17% 
by  28  inches. 

**  Class  E.  Capacity  not  more  than  45  gallons,  and  to 
contain  not  over  600  pounds  net  weight.  The  average 
container  of  this  class  is  the  ordinary  sugar  barrel,  19% 
by  30  inches. 

**  Class  F.  Capacity  not  more  than  55  gallons,  and  to 
contain  not  over  750  pounds  net  weight.  The  average 
container  of  this  class  is  practically  the  ordinary  oil  bar- 
rel, 201/2  by  34  inches. 

**The  material  from  which  the  barrels,  half  barrels, 
and  kegs  are  constructed  must  be  of  good  hardwood 
(except  when  specifically  provided  otherwise),  thoroughly 
kiln  dried,  and  must  be  free  from  knots. 

**The  staves  must  be  not  less  than  the  following  thick- 
ness: Hardwood — Classes  A,  B  and  C,  six  staves  to  2 
inches  (cut  or  sawed) ;  Classes  D  and  E,  %  inch  each 
(cut)  or  five  staves  to  1%  inches  (sawed) ;  Class  F,  7/16 
inch. 

** Softwood — Classes  A  and  B,  7/16  inch;  Classes  C,  D, 
E  and  F,  softwood  not  allowed. 

*  *  The  heads  must  be  not  less  than  the  following  thick- 
ness: Oak,  beech,  maple,  and  red  gum,  7/16  inch  for  all 
classes;  basswood,  cottonwood,  tupelo  gum,  and  other 


EXPORT  SHIPMENTS  IN  BARRELS        591 

similar  woods,  l^  inch  for  all  classes.  Softwood:  9/16 
inch  for  classes  A  and  B.  Softwood  not  allowed  for 
heads  of  classes  C,  D,  E  and  F.  The  heads  of  classes  D, 
E  and  F  must  be  cleated  or  battened  across  the  cants 
with  cleats  not  less  than  4  by  %  inch. 

*^The  hoops  shall  not  be  less  in  number  than  the  fol- 
lowing. Wooden  hoops :  six  hoops  for  classes  A  and  B ; 
eight  hoops  for  classes  C  and  D ;  twelve  hoops  for  classes 
E  and  F.  Steel  hoops:  four  hoops  for  classes  A,  B,  C 
and  1);  six  hoops  for  classes  E  and  F.  The  hoops  shall 
not  be  smaller  in  size  than  the  following :  Wooden  hoops 
— thickness  5/16  to  3/16  inch  and  width  1%  inches,  inside 
measurement,  for  all  classes.  Steel  hoops — For  classes 
A  and  B,  head  hoops  1%  inches  by  23  gauge ;  bilge  hoops 
1%  inches  by  23  gauge ;  for  classes  C  and  D,  head  hoops, 
1%  inches  by  21  gauge;  bilge  hoops  1%  inches  by  23 
gauge;  for  classes  E  and  F,  head  hoops  1%  inches  by 
21  gauge ;  bilge  hoops  1%  inches  by  23  gauge ;  quarter 
hoops,  1%  inches  by  23  gauge.  Gauge  mentioned  refers 
to  United  States  standard. 

**If  desired,  half  of  the  wooden  hoops  may  be  replaced 
by  steel  wire  hoops,  the  wire  to  be  directly  under  the 
wooden  hoops  (between  the  hoop  and  the  bilge)  and  to 
be  not  less  than  No.  11  gauge  for  classes  A,  B,  C  and  D, 
and  not  less  than  No.  9  for  classes  E  and  F. 

**If  desired,  the  standard  wooden  hoops  may  be 
replaced  by  oval  bark  hoops  (so-called  half-round),  three 
circumferences  of  w^hich  will  be  required  to  take  the  place 
of  one  standard  hoop. 

**If  the  Brainerd  steel  hoop  is  used,  the  rolled  edge 
shall  be  included  in  measuring  the  width  of  the  hoops. 

**A11  steel  hoops  must  be  nailed  or  bradded  in  place, 
except  wire  hoops,  which  must  be  stapled,  and  all  wooden 
hoops  must  be  nailed  or  stapled  in  place  with  at  least 
four  nails,  brads,  or  staples  in  classes  A,  B,  C  and  D,  and 
six  nails,  brads,  or  staples  in  classes  E  and  F. 

**The  ends  of  wooden  hoops  must  be  joined  with  at 
least  one  staple  clinched  on  the  outside  and  with  at  least 
two  additional  nails  or  staples  clinched  on  the  inside. 


592  EXPORT  PACKING 

**Both  heads  must  be  headed  up  in  the  usual  manner 
before  shipment  and  must  not  be  closed  by  gunny  sacking, 
boarding,  or  other  like  methods. 

*  *  The  heads  must  fit  into  a  croze  or  notch  in  the  staves 
and  in  addition  there  must  be  an  outer  lining  hoop  to  hold 
the  heads  in  place.  These  lining  hoops  must  extend  en- 
tirely around  the  inside  of  the  chime  and  must  be  held  in 
place  by  nails  at  intervals  of  about  5  inches. 

**For  paper  bags,  used  as  inner  containers  for  kegs, 
the  paper  must  be  crimped  or  creped  parallel  to  the  axis 
of  the  bag.  The  crimping  must  be  such  that  the  crimped 
paper  will  stretch  at  least  25  per  cent  of  the  original 
length  without  tearing. 

*  *  The  crimped  paper  must  have  a  tensile  strength  not 
less  than  32  pounds  parallel  to  the  crimp,  and  not  less 
than  28  pounds  across  the  crimp.  These  tests  to  be  made 
on  strips  3  inches  long  and  1  inch  wide. 

'*The  crimped  paper  must  be  impervious  to  water  at  a 
temperature  of  80°  F.  Tests  of  imperviousness  to  be 
made  by  folding  the  paper  into  cones  as  for  filtering  pur- 
poses. The  cones  are  filled  with  water  at  80°  F.  to  a 
depth  of  2  inches ;  no  water  must  come  through  the  cone 
during  a  period  of  24  hours. 

*  *  The  bags  must  be  made  with  seams  turned  over  not 
less  than  %  inch.  The  seams  must  be  stitched  midway 
between  the  inner  and  outer  edges.  The  length  of  the 
stitches  must  not  exceed  %  inch. 

**The  bags  must  be  of  sufiicient  diameter  to  fit  sides  of 
kegs  without  stretching. 

*  *  The  bags  must  be  of  sufficient  length,  so  that  when 
placed  in  keg  and  filled  to  capacity  of  keg  and  the  end 
of  the  bag  closed  by  tying,  there  will  be  not  less  than  3 
inches  length  above  the  tie." 


CHAPTER  XXII 

EXPORT  SHIPMENTS  IN  BAGS,  BUNDLES  AND 
WITHOUT  PACKING 

IN  this  chapter  we  have  for  brief  consideration  several 
forms  of  export  shipments  which  may  not  at  first 
seem  to  require  any  special  study,  and  are  essentially 
different  in  many  respects  from  shipments  in  cases, 
crates  or  bales.  However,  shipments  in  bags  or  bundles, 
and  even  shipments  that  are  sent  overseas  without  any 
packing  whatsoever — that  is,  bare  or  naked  shipments, 
as  they  are  variously  distinguished — do  involve  certain 
considerations  which  should  require  study.  First  of  all, 
in  such  shipments,  as  in  any  other,  there  is  the  natural 
desire  of  every  shipper  that  his  merchandise  arrive  in 
the  hands  of  his  foreign  customers  safely  and  in  the  best 
possible  condition.  No  matter  what  forms  shipments 
may  take,  it  has  always  to  be  remembered  that  they  will 
undergo  many  different  handlings  before  they  reach  the 
point  of  destination  overseas.  Protection  given  must  be 
adequate  to  accomplish  this  result  of  safe  and  sound  de- 
livery, and  also  sufficient  to  insure  delivery  with  a  mini- 
mum loss  of  contents  of  bags  or  bundles.  Moreover,  the 
method  adopted  must  insure  the  arrival,  intact,  of  units 
or  combinations  of  units  which  may  be  shipped  naked, 
and  their  deliveries  to  the  prospective  consignees. 

Shipments  in  Bags 

Many  different  commodities  included  in  the  commerce 
of  the  world  are  customarily  shipped  in  bags,  including, 
for  example,  flour,  corn  meal,  rice,  seeds,  sugar,  coffee, 
rubber,  jute,  cork,  fertilizers,  bone  meal,  cottonseed  meal, 
com  cake,  beans,  peas  and  similar  vegetables,  asbestos, 
china  clay,  soda  ash  and  some  other  chemicals,  etc. 

593 


594  EXPORT  PACKING 

The  first  consideration  affecting  shipments  in  bags  is 
the  quality  and  texture  of  the  material  used  for  the  sack- 
ing. This  obviously  must  depend  to  a  large  extent  upon 
the  value  of  the  contents.  Certainly  American  cotton 
bags  have  won  an  enviable  reputation  throughout  the 
world,  and  are  most  highly  prized  by  other  countries  for 
overseas  shipments.  The  bags  themselves  are  imported 
in  large  quantities  from  the  United  States — very  espe- 
cially by  countries  exporting  valuable  seeds,  for  example. 
However,  the  price  of  the  bags  under  discussion  is  such 
that  they  are  not  commonly  regarded  as  possible  con- 
tainers for  commodities  of  low  or  even  of  average 
values.  In  shipping  many  low-grade  commodities  it  is 
necessary  sometimes  to  employ  second-hand  and  even 
patched  bags,  but  when  this  is  done  care  should  be  exer- 
cised to  select  for  any  one  shipment  only  those  bags 
having  as  nearly  as  possible  a  uniform  appearance.  It 
is  often  necessary  for  foreign  buyers  to  re-sack  products 
•received  from  overseas,  because  of  the  dirty  and  unsalable 
condition  in  which  bags  are  received.  So  doing  does  not 
contribute  to  the  importer's  good  temper  or  to  his 
kindly  feeling  toward  American  shippers.  And,  then, 
too,  constant  chafing  inevitably  involved  in  the  course 
of  a  sea  voyage  must  always  be  remembered,  and 
the  frequent  rehandling  of  goods  shipped  in  no  matter 
what  containers.  It  has  been  reported  from  Porto  Rico, 
for  example,  in  regard  to  shipments  of  flour  to  that 
island,  that  the  average  shipment  is  handled  by  carriers 
at  least  four  times,  and  very  often  twice  four  times,  be- 
fore arriving  at  destination. 

Texture  of  Bagging  Important.— The  texture  of  the 
bagging  employed  is  frequently  important,  for  probably 
considerably  more  than  one-half  of  all  claims  made  on 
shippers  for  short  weights  are  traceable  to  the  sifting  of 
the  contents  of  bags  placed  in  old  or  loosely  woven  sack- 
ing. Meal,  flour,  grain,  rice,  seeds  and  similar  commodi- 
ties shipped  in  old  bags  of  coarse  texture  almost  always 
involve  rather  serious  losses  from  sifting.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  waste  in  many  shipments  amounts  to  from 


BUNDLED  AND  NAKED  SHIPMENTS      595 

2  per  cent  to  5  per  cent,  largely  or  chiefly  because  of 
sifting  from  loosely  woven  bags ;  therefore  the  tissue  of 
the  bagging  should  be  well  woven,  but  nevertheless  it 
must  not  be  stiff  or  hard,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  elastic 
and  supple,  ta  conform  readily  to  the  contents. 

Losses  claimed  on  arrival  weights,  when  not  due  to 
sifting  because  of  the  loose  texture  of  bags,  are  almost 
always  to  be  traced  to  the  poor  sewing  of  bags.  One 
critic  complains  that  in  sewing  up  bags  it  is  too  often 
the  custom  to  begin  three  or  four  inches  from  each  side 
ear,  with  the  result  that  when  the  sewer  loosens  the  sack, 
gaps  develop  in  the  space  left  between  the  first  stitch  and 
the  ear,  out  of  which  the  contents  are  bound  to  work.  It 
is  advised  that  the  first  stitch  should  be  taken  not  over 
one  inch  from  the  ear.  However,  there  are  not  always 
two  ears  left  on  the  bag;  frequently  there  is  one  only, 
and  that  in  the  center.  Irish  importers  of  flour  and  meal 
have  suggested  that  the  tops  of  sacks  be  sewed  more 
closely,  and  with  more  stitches,  and  that  the  ear  be  not 
placed  too  near  the  center  of  the  top.  The  ears  are  often 
used  as  handles,  and  the  bags  are  less  liable  to  burst 
when  the  ear  is  on  the  side  than  when  it  is  placed  in  the 
center. 

Use  of  Double  Bags.— Damage  to  bags  from  the  use 
of  longshoremen  *s  hooks  is  evidently  to  be  expected  and 
is  probably  unavoidable.  Partly  on  this  account,  double 
bags  are  frequently  to  be  advised,  in  order  that  if  the 
outer  bag  be  torn  by  hooks  or  by  rough  handling  the  inner 
bag  will  still  protect  the  contents.  Another  reason  for  the 
employment  of  double  bags,  applying  especially  to  ship- 
ments of  flour,  is  that  the  inner  sack  will  be  preserved  in 
a  fairly  clean  condition  by  the  exterior  sack,  and  there- 
fore that  the  merchandise  will  arrive  in  suitable  condition 
for  immediate  resale.  Inner  bags  may  be  sometimes  of 
paper,  sometimes  of  cotton,  sometimes  of  jute — depend- 
ent upon  the  commodity  shipped — whether,  for  example, 
fine  wheat  flour  or  common  vegetables — paper  linings  fre- 
quently being  employed  inside  the  burlap  bags  in  the 
shipment  of  soda  ash. 


596  EXPORT  PACKING 

One  of  the  largest  American  exporters  of  flour,  in 
speaking  of  shipments  of  that  commodity  in  bags  or 
sacks,  states  that  a  great  variety  of  such  containers  is 
employed  according  to  the  requirements  and  conditions  of 
different  foreign  countries  or  of  sundry  foreign  import- 
ers. Flour  is  sometimes  packed  in  20-pound  cotton  sacks, 
98-pound  Osnaburg  sacks,  49-pound  cotton  sacks,  140- 
pound  jute  sacks,  200-pound  Osnaburg  sacks,  97-pound 
drill  sacks,  196-pound  Osnaburg  sacks,  132-pound  drill 
sacks.  Cotton  sacks  employed  for  the  small  bags  some- 
times demanded,  include  7-pound,  24i/2-pound  oblong  and 
24%-pound  square,  12-pound,  25-pound  and  40-pound 
containers.  Cotton  sacks  holding  126  pounds  are  also  em- 
ployed with  an  outer  sack  of  jute.  The  largest  and  more 
or  less  regular  sacks  are  usually  employed  when  no  par- 
ticular requirements  are  given  by  customers.  The  small 
bags  are  grouped  in  bundles  and  packed  in  burlap.  The 
larger  sacks  are  shipped  as  they  are  (see  cut,  page  535). 

Osnaburg  is  regarded  as  the  most  desirable  material 
for  flour  bags  of  the  common  shipping  weight  of  200 
pounds.  Lighter  materials  have  not  proven  satisfactory 
for  such  weights.  A  large  shipper  states  that  corn  meal 
is  exported  in  98-pound  cotton  sacks  and  196-pound  Osna- 
burg cotton  bags.  The  meal  is  kiln  dried  before  being 
shipped. 

Wrong  Use  of  Bags.— Bags  have  sometimes  mis- 
takenly been  used  for  the  shipment  of  all  sorts  of  com- 
modities for  which  they  ought  never  to  be  employed.  For 
example,  from  Manila  it  is  reported  that  not  long  ago  a 
lot  of  railway  spikes  were  shipped  to  that  port  in  quan- 
tities of  several  hundred  pounds  in  a  flimsy  jute  sack. 
The  natural  and  inevitable  result  was  that  the  sacks 
arrived  all  torn  and  gaping,  with  a  fairly  large  percent- 
age of  their  contents  missing.  Reference  has  been  made,  - 
in  the  chapter  in  this  volume  devoted  to  shipments  in 
barrels,  to  the  customary  English  practice  of  shipping 
Portland  cement  in  bags.  That  practice  may  easily  be 
understood,  while  the  queer  twist  in  a  shipper's  mind 
which  would  induce  him  to  dispatch  two  or  three  hundred 


BUNDLED  AND  NAKED  SHIPMENTS       597 

pounds  of  iron  spikes  in  a  bag  is  not  comprehensible. 
Commodities  for  which  bags  are  suitable  overseas  ship- 
ping containers  may  easily  be  distinguished  by  mere 
superficial  study  of  the  principles  of  ocean  freighting. 

Proper  marking  and  addressing  of  shipments  in  bags 
requires  very  careful  attention,  in  order  that  marks  may 
not  be  obliterated,  worn  off,  or  in  any  way  lost  or  made 
unreadable  upon  arrival  in  foreign  ports.  Such  marking 
is,  however,  similar  in  all  respects  to  the  marking  of 
bales,  which  will  be  found  discussed  at  length  in  other 
pages  of  this  volume. 

Shipments  in  Bundles 

Under  the  heading  of  ** Bundles''  there  must  be  in- 
cluded several  more  or  less  dissimilar  ways  of  shipping; 
for  example,  here  we  have  merchandise  which  is  merely 
wrapped  in  burlap  or  some  similar  material,  making 
what  are  sometimes  rather  loosely  referred  to  as  bales, 
but  which  are  to  be  distinguished  from  bales,  properly 
so-called,  which  term  ought  to  be  restricted  to  compressed 
merchandise;  nor  can  bundles  be  classified  under  the 
heading  of  *'Bags,''  which  term  should  be  restricted  to 
shipments  such  as  those  just  above  described.  Moreover, 
in  addition  to  burlaped  bundles,  we  have  shipments  of 
numerous  commodities  tied  up  in  bundles  with  rope  or 
with  wire,  and  shipped  without  other  protection,  or  with 
slight  protection,  which  is  not  intended  to  be  of  a  per- 
manent character,  or  which  may  never  arrive  at  destina- 
tion. 

When  shipping  goods  for  export  in  bundles,  abso- 
lutely no  protection  is  given  the  merchandise,  as  a 
prominent  New  York  export  merchant  points  out  in  a 
letter,  and  therefore  only  those  articles  which  are  prac- 
tically indestructible  should  ever  be  forwarded  in  this 
manner. 

General  remarks  applying  to  the  packing  of  all  sorts 
of  goods  refer  equally  to  the  shipments  in  bundles,  but 
especial  stress  should  be  placed  on  the  following  features 


598  EXPORT  PACKING 

of  such  shipping.  Marks  or  addresses  must  be  of  such  a 
character  that  the  bundles  will  reach  the  right  consignees 
without  question  or  debate.  No  tags  should  be  employed 
which  are  merely  tied  to  a  bundle  in  the  forlorn  hope  that 
they  might  still  remain  attached  when  destination  is 
reached.  Remarks  applying  to  addressing  of  bales  apply 
equally  to  bundles  which  are  covered  with  burlap.  When 
bundles  have  no  outside  wrapping,  the  addresses  should 
be  stenciled,  if  possible,  on  the  merchandise  itself,  or 
other  distinguishing  marks  employed  to  which  reference 
will  shortly  be  made  under  the  head  of  * '  Bare  or  Naked 
Shipments."  Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  tying 
together  of  articles  into  bundles.  A  New  York  export 
merchant  emphasizes  this  in  writing:  '^Bundles  should  be 
tied  very  securely  so  that  one  piece  cannot  slip  out,  and 
so  cause  the  undoing  of  the  entire  bundle.''  Many  com- 
plaints are  received  as  to  the  use  of  old  rope  or  twine 
in  fastening  together  bundles  which,  in  such  instances, 
often  arrive  in  miscellaneous  bulk  condition  and  not  in  the 
original  shipping  state.  Wire  or  iron  bands  should  prefer- 
ably be  used,  twisted,  or  drawn  very  tight  when  small  arti- 
cles are  shipped,  such,  for  example,  as  barrel  staves.  The 
usual  bands  around  the  circumference  of  the  bundle  may 
advantageously  be  supplemented  with  other  bands  run- 
ning lengthwise,  to  prevent  the  dropping  out  of  some  of 
the  interior  contents  and  thus  loosening  the  entire  bundle 
in  the  course  of  the  many  handlings  which  such  ship- 
ments, like  any  overseas  shipments,  necessarily  receive. 
If  rope  or  twine  is  employed,  liberal  use  of  it  should  be 
made,  each  round  carefully,  tightly  and  individually 
knotted.  The  very  slight  extra  expense  required  is  well 
worth  while.  All  bundles  should,  of  course,  be  so  made  as 
to  occupy  the  least  possible  cubic  space,  the  only  exception 
to  be  recognized  being  certain  shipments  in  bundles  of 
rather  fragile  merchandise  which  requires  packing  or 
cushioning  with  excelsior,  grass  or  straw,  the  safe  arrival 
of  the  jcontents  being  of  even  greater  importance  than  the 
saving  of  cubic  space. 

Furniture  in  Bundles.— Writing  to  the  author  regard- 


BUNDLED  AND  NAKED  SHIPMENTS      599 

ing  his  practice  in  export  shipping,  a  manufacturer 
states :  '  ^  Furniture  is  sometimes  packed  for  export  in 
bundles,  especially  when  shipped  to  countries  in  which 
duties  are  assessed  on  the  basis  of  gross  weights-7-that  is 
to  say,  chiefly  to  some  of  the  Latin  American  countries — 
and  in  these  cases  extraordinary  precautions  are  usually 
taken  to  protect  the  goods  both  from  damage  and  with 
adequate  waterproofing  materials.  Burlap  of  suitable 
quality  is  usually  laid  out,  spread  with  excelsior  to  a 
depth  of  five  or  six  inches  or  more  (a<jcording  to  the  arti- 
cle that  is  to  be  packed),  then  is  brought  up  around  and 
over  the  furniture  and  sewed  tightly.  Bundling  is  ad- 
visable only  for  nearby  countries,  or  when  the  article  of 
furniture  can  be  completely  knocked  down  or  is  so  in- 
expensive that  the  price  of  a  case  would  be  dispropor- 
tionate to  its  value,  or  where  duties  are  paid  on  the  basis 
of  gross  weight.  Tari)aulins  should  be  used  inside  of  the 
burlaps,  or  sometimes  oiled  paper  instead  of  tarpaulins, 
for  adequate  protection  against  rain  storms  and  other 
damage  from  moisture.''    . 

Not  only  are  some  comparatively  simple  pieces  of  fur- 
niture bundled  for  export,  but  the  practice  has  even  been 
extended  to  the  export  shipments  of  iron  safes.  In  both 
cases,  one  of  the  important  safeguards  to  be  adopted  is 
the  protection  of  the  legs  of  pieces  of  furniture — ward- 
robes, for  example — and  the  wheels  which  are  usually 
attached  to  American  but  not  to  European  safes.  If  it  is 
impossible  to  demount  legs  or  wheels,  as  ought  always  to 
be  done,  extreme  care  must  be  shown  in  their  protection, 
bracing  employed  if  necessary  and  the  very  thick  cushion- 
ing which  should  protect  all  surfaces  of  contents  of 
bundles  of  this  description  must  be  many  times  increased 
for  the  protection  of  such  projecting  parts  as  legs  or 
wheels.  The  obvious  risk  of  damage  from  hooks  in  any 
shipments  in  bundles  must  be  carefully  considered  when 
furniture  or  anything  of  that  sort  is  shipped.  Moreover, 
it  is  quite  clear  that  any  such  shipments  in  bundles  cannot 
be  expected  to  travel  through  to  destination  right  side  up. 
Bundles  are  likely  to  be  loaded  and  stowed  on  their  sides 


600  EXPORT  PACKING 

or  on  their  heads,  or  in  any  haphazard  fashion ;  and  fur- 
thermore, especially  as  applying  to  bundled  pieces  of 
furniture,  there  is  the  very  great  danger  of  crushing  from 
superimposed  packages,  some  of  which  may  be  very 
heavy  indeed. 

Automabile  Tires  Bundled.— One  manufacturer  says 
that  solid  tires  are  baled  separately,  each  tire  by  itself, 
and  shipped  in  this  form  baled  with  a  good  grade  of 
burlap. 

Another  manufacturer  submits  photographs  showing 
solid  truck  tires,  the  boxing  of  which  is  very  expensive, 
while  the  slight  damage  which  might  be  incurred,  if  bur- 
lapped,  is  so  small  that  it  does  not  pay  to  box  the  tires. 
Therefore,  tires  are  wrapped  as  shown  in  a  photograph 
on  page  601,  and  then  five  tires  are  bound  together  as 
further  illustrated,  and  finally  all  surrounded  by  suitable 
burlap  protection. 

Another  manufacturer  says  that  he  frequently  uses 
bundles  for  the  shipping  of  automobile  tires  when  cus- 
toms regulations  of  certain  countries  make  so  doing  ad- 
visable. The  tires  are  shipped  in  bundles  of  from  four  to 
six  tires,  the  tubes  being  deflated  and  placed  inside  of  the 
bundle,  which  is  wrapped  securely  with  burlap — generally 
a  sort  of  white  compound  waterproof  paper  and  burlap, 
which  allows  the  mark  to  be  seen  readily.  In  shipping  to 
Chile,  bundles  are  made  small  for  convenience  of  trans- 
portation in  that  country. 

Bundles  of  Shovels,  Handles,  Etc.— A  manufacturer 
of  shovels  packs  his  products  both  in  cases  and  in  burlap 
bundles.  When  in  bundles,  usually  one  dozen  shovels  are 
carefully  tied  together  with  wire  and  then  wrapped  in 
burlap,  as  shown  in  cuts  page  420.  It  may  be  suggested 
that  to  the  critic  it  appears  that  the  burlap  wrapping,  as 
shown,  is  almost  certain  to  be  torn  and  in  shreds,  if  not 
entirely  missing,  by  the  time  these  bundles  arrive  at 
destination,  with  the  possible  consequence  that  marks 
and  addresses  have  disappeared.  An  improvement  would 
seem  to  be  suitable  tying  with  rope  or  wire  to  secure  the 
burlap  wrapping,  and  making  it  fit  snugly  to  the  con- 


Courtesy  o/  Col.  J.  N.  Wolfaon. 
Unidentified  Shipment  of  Iron  Bars. 
Shoica   bar  irov    received  at   Manila   without   evidence   of  packing  marks  or 


Virurtesy  of  (Joudyear  Tire  d  Ruhbtr  tu. 
Method  of  Packing  Tires. 


Note 


(Left)  Tiro  of  the  solid  truck  tires  shown  are  wrapped  in  burlap  ready  for 
shipment.  (Right)  Illustrates  method  of  tying  tires  prior  to  baling,  t^^-*- 
marking  on  completed  hale. 

601 


Courtesy  of  Mesta  Machine  Co. 
Shipments  of  Large  Machinery, 
Protection  is  afforded  by  strips  of  wood  as  shown  in  photograph. 


Courtesy  of  William  M.  Wilson's  Sons. 

Drum  for  Export  Shipment. 

For   detailed   comment   on   use    of   types   of   drums   for   vanous   commodities 
see  text. 


602 


BUNDLED  AND  NAKED  SHIPMENTS      603 

tents,  otherwise  protection  desired  from  the  burlap 
would  in  many  shipments  be  altogether  lost. 

The  specifications  for  packing  issued  by  the  General 
Engineer  Depot,  United  States  Army,  provide :  ^  *  Shovels 
will  be  shipped  in  bundles  of  six,  securely  wired  together 
with  annealed  wire  of  not  less  than  No.  12  B.W.G.  The 
bowls  will  be  nested,  the  handles  wired  in  two  tiers  of 
three  each.*' 

A  report  from  Mexico  recently  received  compliments 
American  packing  of  shovels,  in  which  great  improve- 
ment has  been  shown  in  recent  years  over  the  old  twine- 
bound  bundles  which  usually  arrived  with  units  scat- 
tered. Strong  burlap,  well  sewed,  is  now  employed, 
bound  "^ith  twisted  iron  wires,  or  tightly  drawn  iron 
strapping. 

One  house,  doing  an  international  business  in  handles, 
writes:  *'We  frequently  pack  handles  for  some  of  our 
export  trade  in  heavy  burlap  bags,  w  ell  tied  with  two  or 
three-ply  sisal  rope,*'  although  more  frequently  this 
house  ships  in  closed  cases. 

Bundled  Picture  Mouldings.— Picture  mouldings  are 
sometimes  packed  in  bundles  instead  of  in  cases,  when  it 
is  desirable  to  minimize  the  gross  weight  in  some  Latin 
American  countries,  particularly  Venezuela,  where  im- 
port duties  are  on  the  basis  of  gross  weight  of  the  pack- 
age. Properly  picture  mouldings  ought  to  be  packed  in 
cases  for  adequate  protection.  However,  a  large  manu- 
facturer writes  that  in  case  of  necessity,  for  shipping  to 
markets  just  referred  to :  '*We  tie  up  enough  moulding  to 
make  a  bundle  about  12  inches  in  diameter,  around  this 
for  protection  tying  heavy  cushions  of  excelsior  covering 
the  entire  length.  The  whole  is  then  covered  with  a 
heavy  rubberized  waterproof  paper  of  three-ply  thick- 
ness, to  keep  out  dampness.  The  entire  bundle  is  then 
sewed  up  in  burlap  and  strapped  with  wire,  making  a 
gross  weight  of  about  135  pounds.  This  has  been  pro- 
nounced a  very  satisfactory  method  of  such  shipping." 

Staves,  Hoops  and  Lumber  in  Bundles.— Small  parcels 
of  lumber,  especially  in  the  finer  hardwoods,  are  usually 


604  EXPORT  PACKING 

forwarded  in  bundles,  and  require  no  special  considera- 
tion, except  for  the  necessity  of  tying  up  firmly  and 
tightly,  yet  with  such  protection  to  the  comers  of  the 
bundles  that  the  abutting  pieces  of  lumber  will  not  be  cut 
by  the  wires  or  bands  and  rendered  unsalable,  and  al- 
ways with  due  precautions  against  the  slipping  out  of 
pieces  of  lumber  from  the  interior  of  the  bundle.  Care 
also  should  be  exercised  to  pack  together,  so  far  as  pos- 
sible, pieces  of  one  length  and  width,  in  order  to  guard 
against  the  breaking  of  the  ends  of  long  pieces  and  the 
splitting  of  wide  pieces  in  the  course  of  the  voyage. 

From  Liverpool  it  is  stated  that  there  is  general 
ground  for  complaint  as  to  the  manner  at  present  adopted 
in  the  United  States  of  packing  or  bundling  staves,  head- 
ings and  hoops.  Heading  for  export  should  be  pressed 
tighter  than  usual;  and  in  cases  where  only  two  wires 
are  generally  employed,  at  least  four  should  be  used. 
The  method  recommended  most  highly  is  that  of  using 
bundling  iron;  that  is,  iron  s'trips  about  one-half  inch  in 
width.  Some  of  this  that  proves  most  effective  has  a 
corrugated  edge,  which  absolutely  prevents  slipping. 
When  this  is  employed  only  two  pieces  will  be  necessary, 
one  piece  being  nailed  on  the  bottom  and  passed  entirely 
around,  and  the  other  piece  being  nailed  on  the  top  and 
being  passed  around  the  bundle  likewise.  Wooden  cleats 
laid  across  the  top  and  bottom  head  of  the  bundle,  to- 
gether with  iron  straps,  also  prove  very  satisfactory 
for  heading.  A  very  simple  precaution  in  packing  staves, 
but  one  that  repays  the  extra  expense  manifold,  is  that 
of  connecting  the  usual  ties  at  both  ends  with  a  third  one 
running  lengthwise  of  the  bundle.  Hoops  generally  ar- 
rive in  pretty  fair  condition,  it  is  said,  and  if  they  are 
done  up  in  bundles  of  10  coils  each  and  a  little  extra  care 
is  used  in  the  tying,  and  a  little  more  twine  used,  they 
will  probably  carry  in  good  condition. 

Hickory  squares  are  packed  in  bundles  and  carry  best 
if  bound  with  wire.  If  poorly  tied,  pieces  slip  out  when 
moved  so  that  from  25  per  cent  to  30  per  cent  land  in 
bulk.    Bundles  of  staves  and  shooks  are  often  poorly  tied 


BUNDLED  AND  NAKED  SHIPMENTS      605 

with  cord.     Wire-bound  bundles  generally  carry  well. 

An  export  house  writes  to  the  author:  **In  most  cases 
our  staves  are  shipped  loose,  except  in  the  case  of  sawn 
staves  which  are  usually  bundled  for  convenience  of 
handling;  especially  where  staves  weigh  less  than  2 
pounds  we  always  bundle  them  to  avoid  loss  in  transit. 

*^In  shipping  barrels  for  export,  they  are  usually 
knocked  down,  the  staves  bundled  by  themselves,  and  the 
heading  and  hoops  are  packed  in  a  set-up  barrel,  so  that 
a  given  number  of  bundles,  together  with  one  barrel  con- 
taining sufficient  heading  and  hoops  constitute  a  given 
number  of  complete  packages. 

'^  There  is  no  definite  standard  method  of  packing 
cooperage  material,  and  on  export  business  it  is  always 
the  custom  to  conform  to  the  ideas  of  the  buyers.'' 

Another  shipper  of  staves  states  that  the  practice  with 
them  is  to  ship  staves  loose  or  in  bundles  tied  with  wire  or 
strap  iron.    This  house  does  not  case  or  crate  the  staves. 

Iron  and  Steel  Products  in  Bundles.— A  prominent 
manufacturer  and  exporter  advises  the  author  as  to  the 
company's  export  shipments  in  the  following  language: 
*^The  rolling  mills  in  this  country  that  are  interested  in 
export  business  usually  bundle  bars  in  very  small  pack- 
ages, presumably  because  they  have  not  the  necessary 
crane  facilities  to  enable  them  to  handle  larger  packages. 
Their  bundles  usually  run  from  about  250  pounds  to  300 
pounds,  and  as  most  bars  shipped  for  export  are  at  least 
30  feet  in  length,  this  means  that  the  bundles  contain  very 
few  bars.  As  a  result,  the  packages  are  not  su§5ciently 
stiff  to  withstand  the  handling  to  which  they  are  sub- 
jected in  loading  to  and  from  steamers,  such  shipments 
frequently  arriving  at  destination  with  the  bars  very 
badly  bent,  involving  extra  expense  to  the  customer  in 
straightening  the  bars  before  placing  them  in  stock. 

**Our  experience  of  a  good  many  years  indicates  that, 
depending  upon  the  size  and  length  of  the  bars,  the  pack- 
ages should  run  from  a  minimum  of  about  1,000  pounds 
up  to  1,600  pounds,  or  sometimes  as  much  as  2,000 
pounds.    If  proper  care  is  used  in  nesting  the  bars  and 


606  EXPORT  PACKING 

in  putting  on  the  ties,  this  size  package  will  insure  great 
stiffness. 

**It  is  our  practice  to  use  wire  ties  of  slightly  less  than 
1/4''  diameter,  spaced  1  foot  fron^  either  end  of  the  bundle 
with  intermediate  ties,  usually  30",  but  never  more  than 
36",  on  centers.  These  wire  ties  are  in  turn  wired  with 
smaller  wire  to  at  least  two  of  the  outside  bars  in  the 
bundle  so  that,  if  the  package  changes  shape  due  to  rough 
handling  or  the  piling  of  heavy  cargo  on  top  of  it,  the  ties 
cannot  slip  out  of  position.  Considerable  care  is  neces- 
sary in  tightening  up  the  wire  ties  because,  if  they  are 
twisted  too  tight,  the  wire  becomes  crystalline  and  will 
break  under  any  heavy  strain. 

**  There  are  some  ports  where  the  ships  unload  into 
lighters,  where  the  stevedores  will  deliberately  break 
open  thfese  packages  because  of  their  objection  to 
handling  the  heavy  bundles  from  the  lighter  to  the  dock, 
but  even  in  such  cases  the  shipments  will  reach  destina- 
tion in  much  better  condition  because  most  of  the  rough 
handling  occurs  in  loading  to  and  from  the  ship. 

*  *  We  would  be  very  much  interested  in  seeing  all  bar 
shipments  for  export  bundled  more  or  less  in  the  above 
manner,  as  we  think  it  would  have  a  beneficial  effect  on 
American  steel  export  trade  generally. 

**The  bundles  of  bars  are  tagged  with  tin  tags  manu- 
factured by  our  company.  These  tags  are  embossed  with 
the  shipping  marks  of  consignee.  Some  of  our  customers 
also  request  that  the  ends  of  bars  be  painted  with  a  speci- 
fied coIqx,  so  that  the  goods  may  be  identified  in  case  tags 
are  lost.    Each  bundle  has  at  least  two  tin  tags. ' ' 

Another  large  exporter  writes  as  follows:  *' Steel 
wire  is  put  up  in  coils  weighing  from  approximately  125 
pounds  to  155  pounds;  also  in  coils  weighing  approxi- 
mately 65  to  80  pounds.  These  are  so-called  'catch 
weight'  or  *  split  catch-weight'  coils.  *  Exact  weight 
coils'  weigh  from  11  pounds  up.  Coils  are  shipped  bare 
or  oiled,  or  wrapped  in  paper  or  burlap,  or  both,  and  for- 
warded in  single  coils,  or  in  bundles  of  two,  nested  and 
tied  together,  or  several  coils  tied  together. 


BUNDLED  AND  NAKED  SHIPMENTS      607 

**  Fence  wire  is  put  up  in  catch-weight,  split  catch- 
weight  or  even  weight  bundles,  in  ordinary  round  coils, 
square  bundles,  two  round  coils  nested,  or  two  or  more 
coils  wired  together.  This  wire  is  shipped  bare.  The 
wire  is  tagged  with  a  linen  or  tin  tag. 

**  Barbed  wire  is  put  up  on  either  single  or  double 
cross  piece  wooden  reels  and  shipped  in  this  way.  These 
reels  vary  from  25  to  125  pounds  net  weight,  and  are 
shipped  bare.  When  the  wire  is  transported  by  mule  it 
is  sometimes  burlapped,  to  protect  the  animal. 

^  *  Two-strand  twisted  cable,  or  barbless  fencing  wire, 
is  packed  on  wooden  reels,  like  barbed  wire,  in  catch 
weight  reels,  being  tagged  in  the  same  way  as  fence  wire. 

*'Wire  fencing  is  shipped  bare  in  rolls  of  various 
lengths.'' 

The  following  practice  is  in  use  by  a  third  large  ship- 
per: **Bars  in  small  sizes  are  put  up  in  bundles,  the 
bundles  tagged,  and  large  sizes  are  shipped  loose.  Occa- 
sional bars  are  tagged.  The  ends  of  all  loose  bars  have 
'  an  identifying  paint  mark. 

*^  Sheets,  both  plain  and  corrugated,  are  shipped  in 
bundles,  in  skeleton  unlined  crates,  in  skeleton  felt  lined 
crates,  and  occasionally,  but  rarely,  in  boxes.  All  of  the 
marks  necessary  can  be  put  on  the  crates,  bundles  or 
boxes. 

**  Barbed  wire  is  put  up  on  reels  or  spools  of  the 
weights  specified  by  customer.  The  spools  are  suitably 
tagged  and  without  covering.  Reels  of  other  wire  may 
be  shipped  in  burlap." 

Specifications  for  packing  of  the  General  Engineer 
Depot  of  the  United  States  Army  provide  that  ^^  steel 
pipe,  when  less  than  2  inches  in  diameter,  shall  be  bundled 
with  not  less  than  No.  12  B.  W.  G.  annealed  wire  into 
bundles  of  preferably  less  than  200  pounds.  Threads  will 
be  slushed  and  provided  with  a  metal  thread  protector." 

A  report  received  from  South  America  reads:  ** Gal- 
vanized wire  in  sizes  as  fine  as  No.  25  gauge  is  almost 
always  packed  in  specified  weight  bundles  wrapped  in 
burlap.     Sometimes  customers  demand  paper  wrapping 


608  EXPORT  PACKING 

as  well  as  burlapping,  but  an  experienced  shipper  believes 
that  any  galvanized  wire  heavier  than  No.  25  gauge  does 
not  necessarily  require  paper  wrapping  in  addition  to 
burlapping.  Wire  in  finer  sizes,  from  Nos.  25  to  30  gauge, 
packed  in  specified  weight  bundles,  should  always  be 
wrapped  in  paper  in  addition  to  the  burlap.  South  Amer- 
ican markets  sometimes  require  wire  in  bundles,  some- 
times packed  in  barrels.*' 

Electrical  wire  is  generally  shipped  in  rolls,  but  the 
usual  roll  might  be  made  much  more  compact,  thus  taking 
up  much  less  cubic  space  and  arriving  in  better  condition. 
Paper  ought  not  to  be  used  as  wrapping,  for  burlap  will 
ensure  arrival  in  much  neater  and  more  salable  condition. 

A  large  New  York  exporter  doing  business  with  Japan 
is  of  the  opinion  that  such  material  as  band  iron  and  box 
strapping  should  be  wrapped  in  burlap  in  bundles  weigh- 
ing about  200  pounds,  and  if  likely  to  corrode  the  mate- 
rial should  be  first  wrapped  in  hardware  paper  and  then 
burlap.  If  one  coil  of  strapping  or  wire  or  similar  mate- 
rial is  not  heavy  enough  to  make  about  200  pounds,  then 
two  bundles  may  be  strapped  together.'  This  house  points 
out  that  there  is  a  great  saving  in  space,  by  bundling  the 
material  in  this  manner,  over  the  practice  sometimes 
adopted  of  shipping  in  barrels. 

A  manufacturer  of  that  product  states  that  insulated 
wire  is  packed  in  coils,  protected  by  waterproof  paper 
and  burlap. 

*  *  Bare ' '  or  *  *  Naked ' '  Shipments 

Since  no  export  packing  of  any  description  is  em- 
ployed in  the  overseas  forwarding  of  commodities  here  to 
be  classified,  which  are  shipped  without  packing  or  pro- 
tection of  any  description,  or  slight,  if  any,  protection, 
it  might  on  first  thought  seem  that  no  attention  need  be 
given  in  these  pages  to  such  shipments.  However,  there 
is  one  very  important  matter  which,  from  innumerable 
complaints  that  are  received,  should  be  given  a  good  deal 
more  thought  than  would  appear  to  have  been  devoted  to 


BUNDLED  AND  NAKED  SHIPMENTS      609 

the  subject  heretofore.  This  refers  to  the  adequate  mark- 
ing of  many  such  shipments,  or  a  specific  indication  of 
some  sort  applied  to  each  article  shipped  bare  which  will 
ensure  the  arrival  of  each  such  article  in  the  hands  of  the 
legitimate  consignee.  Innumerable  complaints  are  re- 
ceived from  importers  in  other  countries  of  the  arrival  of 
iron  and  steel  products — bars,  rods,  rails,  etc. — without 
identifying  marks,  with  consequent  serious  losses  to 
importers.  For  example,  observe  the  reproduction  of 
photograph  (page  601)  supplied  by  Colonel  Joseph  N. 
Wolfson,  of  Manila,  illustrating  losses  incurred  at  "that 
port  through  the  arrival  of  merchandise  which  cannot  be 
identified.  This  is  a  photograph  of  quite  a  quantity  of 
bar  iron,  which  arrived  at  Manila  **  without  the  slightest 
evidence  of  packing  marks  or  brands.'*  Apparently  a 
good  many  American  shippers  pay  no  attention  at  all  to 
the  application  of  identifying  marks  to  loose  goods 
shipped  bare,  while  others  adopt  very  haphazard  methods 
of  marking  such  goods.  For  example,  one  shipper  writes 
as  follows:  **Pig  iron,  as  a  rule,  is  shipped  without  any 
marks,  but  if  several  different  kinds  are  forwarded  in  the 
same  vessel,  buckets  of  different  colors  of  paint  are  some- 
times poured  over  the  various  piles."  It  would  seem  to 
the  critic  that  a  stripe  or  splash  of  paint  applied  with  a 
brush  individually  to  each  pig  would  cost  practically 
nothing,  and  would  be  a  much  surer  means  of  identifying 
the  consignee,  different  consignees  in  the  same  port 
having,  of  course,  each  his  own  distinguishing  color.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  use  of  paint  of  distinguishing  colors 
seems  about  the  only  practical  and  economical  fashion  of 
indicating  consignees  of  merchandise  of  this  description 
which  is  shipped  loose ;  very  especially  when  rods,  bars, 
etc.,  are  of  comparatively  small  sizes  or  diameters,  to 
which  it  may  be  physically  impossible  to  affix  stenciled 
or  other  similar  consignee  marks  in  full.  The  paint 
marks  in  question  are  usually  applied  at  the  ends  of  the 
bars  or  rails,  or  whatever  the  commodity  may  be.  This, 
however,  is  a  practice  which  heretofore  seems  to  have 
been  more  honored  in  the  breach  than  in  the  observance. 


610  EXPORT  PACKING 

Indeed,  some  shippers  do  not  seem  to  have  appreciated 
the  really  serious  losses  which  have  been  incurred  by  for- 
eign consignees,  one  large  shipper  actually  going  so  far, 
in  a  conversation  with  the  author,  as  to  remark:  *'A 
15-foot  bar,  even  in  small  sizes,  is  not  an  object  easily 
losf  The  answer  is  that  they  are  frequently  lost.  This 
same  shipper  expressed  his  disbelief  in  claims  advanced 
on  account  of  such  losses,  although  there  can  be  no  doubt 
at  all  about  the  good  faith,  substantiated  in  many 
instances  by  photographs,  of  the  customers  of  American 
shippers  who  have  complained  in  this  respect. 

Wherever  possible,  full  stenciled  marks,  always  made 
with  thoroughly  waterproof  paint  of  such  a  description 
that  it  will  not  easily  be  rubbed  or  blurred,  should  be 
invariably  employed,  as,  for  example,  in  shipments  of 
steel  pieces,  and  in  shipments  of  such  other  articles  often 
forwarded  bare  or  without  protection,  as  boilers,  very 
large  pieces  of  machinery,  etc. 

Large  Machinery.— Two  considerations  generally  in- 
spire the  shipment  in  bare  or  unprotected  condition  of 
large  pieces  of  machinery.  First  and  chief  of  which  is 
the  usually  rough  character  of  the  piece  being  shipped, 
which  ordinarily  is  intrinsically  proof  against  the  usual 
shipping  risks.  The  second  and  minor  consideration  is 
that  even  when  there  are  fragile  or  more  or  less  delicate 
parts  of  the  piece,  they  may  be  more  tenderly  treated  if 
shipped  bare  and  with  the  dangerous  points  easily  visible, 
than  might  be  the  case  if  very  carefully  boxed  and  hidden. 
It  may  usually  be  taken  as  probable,  at  least,  that  large 
and  very  heavy  pieces  will  be  handled  with  some  care  and 
consideration  by  stevedores,  and  receive  the  personal 
attention  of  ships'  officers,  partly  because  of  the  power 
required  in  hoisting  heavy  pieces,  and  partly  because  of 
the  care  required  in  properly  adjusting  slings  to  guard 
against  damage  to  the  deck  or  even  the  bottom  of  a  ship, 
should  a  heavy  piece  break  loose  from  the  slings  and  fall 
a  considerable  distance.  Instances  have  been  known 
where  a  very  heavy  piece,  thus  escaping  from  its  fasten- 
ings, has  plunged  through  the  hatchways  of  a  ship,  and 


BUNDLED  AND  NAKED  SHIPMENTS      611 

broken  a  hole  right  through  the  ship's  bottom  which  re- 
quired thousands  of  dollars  of  expense  in  drydocking  and 
repairing. 

In  the  shipments  of  large  pieces  of  machinery,  or  any- 
thing of  that  description,  care  must  of  course  be  taken  for 
the  protection  against  rust  or  other  damage  of  bright 
parts,  by  thorough  slushing  in  the  fashion  usually  pre- 
scribed for  machinery  in  general,  as  elsewhere  in  this 
volume  fully  described.  Skids  frequently  have  to-be  em- 
ployed for  the  mounting  of  such  pieces,  in  order  to  facili- 
tate their  moving  on  rollers  along  wharves  or  across  the 
floors  of  warehouses.  In  this  connection  reference  may 
be  made  to  photograph  (reproduced  on  page  371)  illus- 
trating the  manner  in  which  a  large  condenser  is  pre- 
pared for  export  shipment,  when  supporting  saddles  or 
feet  are  not  cast  integral  with  the  shell.  Attached  shaft- 
ing, crank  shafts  or  axles,  in  the  case  of  large  flywheels, 
etc.,  should  usually  be  protected  by  strips  of  wood,  as 
will  be  noted  in  the  reproduction  of  a  photograph  ap- 
pearing on  page  602.  See  further  in  this  general  connec- 
tion remarks  appearing  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  bulky 
shipments  under  the  head  of  locomotives. 

Chains.— A  prominent  manufacturer  and  exporter 
states  that  chain  larger  than  1"  is  shipped  loose,  without 
packing  of  any  description ;  also  smaller  sizes  are  usually 
packed  in  wooden  cases,  or  in  oil  barrels.  This  manu- 
facturer does  not  state  what,  if  any,  protection  is  given 
the  larger  sizes  against  danger  of  rusting,  but  if,  as  is 
often  if  not  usually  the  case,  the  chain  is  shipped  for 
re-sale — that  is,  shipped  to  merchants  rather  than  to 
users — then  its  arrival  in  bright,  salable  condition  would 
seem  to  require  adequate  protection  against  this  risk. 

Official  Specifications.— In  connection  with  shipments 
of  merchandise  bare  or  without  packing,  the  specifications 
of  the  General  Engineer  Depot  of  the  United  States 
Army  provide  as  follows:  ** Boilers. — Where  there  are 
no  protuberances  likely  to  be  injured  the  depot  may 
authorize  shipment  without  crating;  in  this  case  the 
marking  will  be  put  upon  the  metal.    Tanks,  boilers  and 


612  EXPORT  PACKING 

similar  material,  where  subject  to  damage  if  uncrated, 
will  be  shipped  on  skids  or  cradles,  secured  thereto  by 
bands  of  ample  strength  provided  with  a  turn  buckle  or 
satisfactory  substitute;  they  shall  be  blocked  against 
longitudinal  shifting ;  the  skids  or  cradles  will  present  no 
sharp  edges  to  the  loads. 

**  Heavy  and  large  tractor  or  flywheels  will  generally 
be  shipped  without  crating  or  boxing.  Hubs  will  be  care- 
fully protected,  if  necessary. 

^* Rails  will  be  shipped  bare;  splice  bars  preferably  in 
pairs  bolted  together  with  their  own  bolts;  fittings  for 
rails  preferably  in  boxes. 

*  *  Unf  abricated  rolled  beams,  channels,  angles,  tees 
and  similar  material,  including  plates,  not  less  than  3/16 
inch  thick,  will  be  shipped  bare. 

*  ^  Wire  fence  material  will  be  made  into  tight  rolls  and 
securely  wired,  with  wires  about  6  inches  from  each  end 
and  not  over  36  inches  apart,  not  crated. 

*  *  Fabricated  structural  steel  will  generally  be  shipped 
bare.  Each  piece  will  be  marked  as  directed.  Where  pro- 
jecting parts  are  likely  to  be  injured,  such  blocking  as  will 
protect  them  will  be  placed,  unless  held  unnecessary.'' 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
EXPORT  SHIPMENTS  IN  DRUMS  AND  CARBOYS 

THE  average  American  manufacturer  of  products 
shipped  in  drums  is  usually  interested  mainly  in 
the  quality  of  the  product  and  he  frequently  gives 
the  package  too  little  consideration.  However,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  role  played  by  the  package  is  of  such 
importance  that  every  effort  should  be  made  to  provide 
a  suitable  container.  The  manufacturer,  in  ordering  his 
cans  or  drums,  should  be  most  careful  first  to  secure 
every  bit  of  information  at  hand  in  reference  to  the  par- 
ticular shipment,  to  consider  the  nature  of  the  material 
with  which  the  container  is  to  be  filled,  to  understand 
conditions  at  point  of  destination,  and  so  on. 

A  prominent  manufacturer  of  steel  containers  offers 
the  following  remarks  on  packages  of  this  sort: 

**In  the  selection  of  a  package  for  export  work,  we 
take  into  consideration  the  specific  gravity  of  the  mate- 
rial to  be  shipped,  the  destination,  the  number  of  han- 
dlings, and  the  market  for  used  drums  at  the  port  of  final 
destination.  We  do  not  recommend  for  any  export  work 
a  package  lighter  than  16  gauge  in  the  55-gallon  size  or 
14  gauge  in  the  110-gallon  size,  and  for  anything  longer 
than  transatlantic  shipments,  we  recommend  a  package 
with  separately  applied  rolling  hoops.  We  herewith  send 
you  a  photograph  of  a  standard  container  (see  page  602). 

**For  sulphuric  and  other  corrosive  acids  and  mate- 
rials having  a  gravity  over  1,  for  consumption  in  Eng- 
land and  territories  adjacent  to  the  larger  continental 
ports,  we  recommend  all  14  gauge  with  separately  applied 
rolling  hoops  in  the  55-gallon  size,  and  all  12  gauge  with 
separately  applied  rolling  hoops  in  the  110-gallon  size. 
These  specifications  also  apply  for  any  commodity 
shipped  to  Asiatic  ports,  but  to  the  West  Coast  of  South 

613 


614  EXPORT  PACKING 

America,  and  ports  in  Africa  other  than  Mediterranean 
ports,  we  suggest  the  use  of  the  lighter  drums.  The 
reasons  are  obvious. 

^*In  England  and  the  manufacturing  districts  on  the 
Continent  of  Europe,  there  is  a  good  market  for  second 
hand  packages,  which  have  recently  been  selling  for  more 
than  the  cost  of  new  packages  in  this  country.  There- 
fore, it  is  economical  to  purchase  a  package  which  will 
better  than  any  other  withstand  the  wear  and  tear  of 
transportation,  and  consequently  present  a  higher  sal- 
vage value  on  arrival.  This  also  applies  to  shipments  to 
Asiatic  ports  and  to  the  Mediterranean  coast,  where  there 
is  a  steady  flow  of  vegetable  oils  from  these  territories 
back  to  the  United  States.  In  the  case  of  Africa,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Mediterranean  ports,  and  the  East  Coast 
of  South  America,  however,  the  consuming  centers  are 
very  largely  located  inland,  and  here  the  additional 
weight  of  the  heavier  package  is  a  factor  worthy  of 
serious  consideration,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
there  is  no  great  demand  for  packages  of  this  type  for 
either  local  consumption  or  export. 

**0f  course,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  American 
manufacturer  will  not  be  very  keenly  interested  in  the  re- 
sale value  of  the  package  once  it  arrives  at  destination, 
as  he,  generally  speaking,  charges  his  foreign  buyer  with 
the  original  cost  of  the  package  plus  a  slight  profit,  but 
indirectly  we  feel  that  this  is  an  important  feature,  as 
his  foreign  buyer  is  undoubtedly  better  pleased  if  he 
receives  a  package  which  has  a  high  re-sale  value  than  if 
he  receives  a  package  the  salvage  value  of  which  is  prac- 
tically negligible. 

**To  recapitulate,  we  can  generally  recommend  all  12 
gauge  in  the  110-gallon  drum  and  all  14  gauge  in  the 
55-gallon  drum  for  export  to  England,  Continental 
Europe,  Asia,  the  West  Indies  and  the  East  Coast  of 
South  America,  and  all  14  gauge  in  the  110-gallon  drum 
and  all  16  gauge  in  the  55-gallon  drum  to  Africa,  other 
than  Mediterranean  ports,  and  West  Coast  of  South 
America.    For  specific  shipments,  where  for  good  and 


SHIPMENTS  IN  DRUMS  AND  CARBOYS    615 

sufficient  reasons  the  re-sale  value  is  not  considered,  we 
recommend,  for  shipments  to  England  and  Continental 
Europe,  the  55-gallon  drum  without  separately  applied 
rolling  hoops,  but  we  do  not  believe  that  in  any  case 
packages  of  a  lighter  gauge  than  those  specified  should 
be  used.'' 

Specifications  for  packing  issued  by  the  General  Engi- 
neer Depot  of  the  United  States  Army  provided  that 
50-gallon  steel  drums  used  for  shipping  liquids  in  general 
be  of  not  less  than  .0625"  in  thickness. 

Caustic  Soda. — A  photograph  (see  page  619)  was  re- 
cently sent  us  of  a  shipment  of  caustic  soda  in  drums 
which  arrived  at  destination  in  very  bad  shape  and  was 
the  source  of  grave  injury  to  several  stevedores.  In  this 
case  the  drum  was  manufactured  of  very  light  material, 
as  is  too  commonly  the  case,  and  while  the  solid  mass 
of  the  soda  provided  good  support  for  the  light  metal 
against  crushing  strains  the  package  was  readily  punc- 
tured. These  punctures  easily  admitted  water  which  in 
turn  dissolved  the  acid,  and  a  condition  was  created  which 
could  not  but  be  dangerous  for  any  one  handling  the 
package. 

Caustic  soda  seems  to  be  packed  by  various  manufac- 
turers in  different  sizes  of  containers  but  always  in  steel 
drums.  A  prominent  exporter  of  caustic  soda  writes  that 
his  caustic  s6da  is  packed  in  steel  drums  of  the  following 
sizes  and  dimensions :  In  packages  having  a  net  weight 
of  675  pounds  the  drums  are  made  of  24  gauge  sheet  steel 
stock  with  the  heads  rolled  or  spun  in.  The  caps  are 
rolled  in ;  720  pounds,  25  gauge  body  and  heads,  4y2-inch 
rolled  in  cap;  708  pounds,  22  to  24  gauge;  760  pounds, 
standard  U.  S.  gauge,  body  24,  head  24,  caps  26;  725 
pounds,  26  gauge  iron  fitted  with  9-inch  friction  plug; 
700  pounds,  24  gauge,  5-inch  friction  cap  in  top;  750 
pounds,  23  gauge  body  and  head,  8-inch  cap ;  750  pounds, 
24  gauge,  5-inch  friction  cap  in  one  head ;  730  pounds,  25 
gauge  sheet  steel. 

Another  exporter  of  caustic  soda  writes :  **Our  caus- 
tic soda  packing  is  in  uniform  drums  of  the  following 


616 


EXPORT  PACKING 


weights:  Gross  740  pounds,  net  720  pounds;  gross  229 
pounds,  net  220  pounds;  gross  105  pounds,  net  100 
pounds/' 

A  third  exporter  of  caustic  soda  says  that,  ^'caustic 
soda  for  export  is  packed  in  various  sized  containers  and 
various  manufacturers  have  a  different  method  of  pack- 
ing. Our  packages  are  made  of  steel  drums  in  three  sizes, 
as  follows:  Small,  112  pounds  net,  119  pounds  gross, 
space  occupied  2.11  cubic  feet;  medium,  221  pounds  net, 
230  pounds  gross,  space  occupied  2.91  cubic  feet;  large. 


Courtesy  of  Union  Carbide  Sales  Co. 


675  pounds  net,  695  pounds  gross,  space  occupied  7.77 
cubic  feet.  All  of  our  drums  are  filled  to  exact  weight, 
hence  with  the  tare  w^eight  known,  it  is  very  easy  to  deter- 
mine the  exact  amount  of  caustic  soda  in  each  drum.'' 

Calcium  Carbide.— A  large  shipper  of  calcium  carbide 
writes :  *  *  The  necessity  of  secure  packing  on  calcium  car- 
bide shipped  by  water  is  of  extreme  importance  and 
places  a  double  obligation  on  the  manufacturers  of  this 
commodity. 

**  Calcium  carbide,  as  you  perhaps  know,  is  very  sus- 
ceptible to  moisture  and  when  brought  in  contact  with 


SHIPMENTS  IN  DRUMS  AND  CARBOYS    617 

same  releases  acetylene  gas.  It  is  obligatory,  therefore, 
that  our  export  packages  shall  be  so  constructed  as  to 
absolutely  prevent  the  contents  from  coming  in  contact 
with  moisture,  and  also  to  make  them  sufficiently  strong 
to  withstand  the  rough  handling  incidental  to  long  ocean 
voyages. 

*^A  great  many  years  ago  we  designed  a  special  pack- 
age for  the  water  shipment  of  carbide  consisting  of  a 
heavy  sheet  steel  drum,  the  seams  of  which  are  double 
lock-jointed  (no  solder  being  used  on  the  package),  the 
opening  being  fitted  with  a  gasketed  screw  cover,  over 
which  a  metal  false  cover  is  placed,  and  the  entire  metal 
package  is  then  encased  in  a  heavy  wooden  overcask. 
(See  photograph  page  616.) 

*'From  the  fact  that  carbide  so  packed  by  us — ship- 
ments amounting  to  many  thousand  tons  per  year — is 
received  at  destinations  such  as  Argentina,  Chile,  Peru, 
Africa,  Australia,  the  Philippines,  China  or  India,  in 
first  class  condition  and  that  we  have  still  to  receive  our 
first  legitimate  complaint  of  damage  to  the  contents  of  an 
export  package,  we  feel  that  we  have  accomplished  all 
that  is  possible  in  the  way  of  protecting  our  material, 
and  to  some  extent  in  *  lifting  the  curse'  off  American 
packing  abroad.'* 

Printers'  Ink.— A  great  maiiy  different  commodities 
are  shipped  in  drums,  including  oils,  paints,  sundry 
liquids  and  semi-liquids.  In  a  general  way,  all  such  pack- 
ages may  be  considered  similar  and  may  be  illustrated  by 
photographs  which  have  been  supplied  of  drums  used  in 
shipping  printers'  ink. 

Printers'  ink,  packed  in  quantities  larger  than  50- 
pound  pails,  is  generally  shipped  in  steel  drums,  accord- 
ing to  advices  received  from  a  prominent  manufacturer 
of  this  commodity.  Of  thes6  drums  (see  photograph, 
page  619),  three  sizes  are  used,  15-gallon,  30-gallon  and 
55-gallon.  These  are  manufactured  of  No.  18  gauge  steel 
with  No.  16  gauge  heads,  with  rolling  hoops  rolled  into 
the  shell,  making  a  very  sturdy  and  satisfactory  package. 
Printers'  ink  is  also  sometimes  shipped  in  steel  pails 


618  EXPORT  PACKING 

which,  for  present  purposes,  may  be  considered  under 
the  general  heading  of  drums,  the  steel  pails  used,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration  (page  620),  containing  either  25 
or  50  pounds.  Attention  is  called  by  the  manufacturer 
to  the  following  points:  (1)  the  sturdy  construction  of 
the  steel  pails  and  the  secure  way  in  which  the  cover  is 
fastened  on;  (2)  very  legible  stenciling  on  the  pails;  (3) 
the  aluminum  tag  which  is  attached  to  each  pail  and 
which  carries  the  batch  grinding  number. 

Acids.— The  shipment  of  ^acids  is  thus  described  by  a 
correspondent :  **  We  ship  carboys  entirely  boxed,  in  fact, 
there  are  two  boxes,  one  covering  the  body  and  a  small 
case  covering  the  neck  and  head. 

**0n  mineral  acids,  further  protection  is  secured  by 
using  sealing  wax  over  the  stopper.  With  nitric  acid  we 
use  sufficient  mineral  wool  to  prevent  fire  or  damage  to 
other  goods. 

*^  Whereas  it  might  be  true  that  the  American  method 
of  packing  has  not  in  every  instance  been  of  the  best, 
nevertheless,  the  writer  feels  that  a  mountain  is  some- 
times made  out  of  a  mole-hill  and  that  undue  criticism 
and  exaggeration  are  made  of  a  natural  business  error, 
or  for  causes  beyond  our  control." 

Another  exporter  of  acids  writes:  **Our  mineral 
acids  for  export  are  sold  in  glass  carboys  which  are  boxed 
for  export  shipment,  the  weights  and  measurements  being 
as  follows :  Gross  246  pounds,  tare  57  pounds. 

*  *  These  carboys,  when  used  for  export,  include  square 
tops,  the  measurements  being  I714  inches  width  includ- 
ing cleats,  151/^  inches  length,  31  inches  height  including 
the  square  tops.'' 

Carbonic  Acid  Gas.— Steel  cylinders  are  used  in  ship- 
ping carbonic  a,cid  gas,  having  a  capacity  of  about  50 
pounds.  These  cylinders  are  about  50  inches  high  by  8 
inches  in  diameter  and  are  shipped  naked  without  any 
crating. 

Specifications  for  Drums.— The  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  regulations  covering  the  specifications  re- 
quired in  iron  or  steel  barrels  or  drums  for  shipment  of 


t^JI' 


Example  of  Poor  Packing  of  Caustic  Soda. 
Shows  cauatio  soda  shipped  in  container  manufactured  oj  very  light  material. 


Courtesy  of  Geo.  H.  Morrill  Go. 
Packing  op  Printers'  Ink. 

rolh77nto*^tlTlheir^'^  ^^  ^^  ^''"^^  **^^^'  ^^  ^""^^  ^^^^^'  '^'^  '■°"*''^  '*<'°P» 

619 


Courtesy  of  Oeo.   II.    Morrill  Po. 

Steel  Pails  for  Printers'  Ink. 

steel  pails  25  and   50  pounds  showing  construction,  stencilling  and  griding 
number  tag. 


OourtesT/  of  Joseph  Diaon  Crucible  Co. 

Packing  op  Stove  Polish. 

Packages  first  wrapped  in  paper,  then  cased.    Two  cases  are  strapped  together 
as  shown.     The  combined  cases  are  strapped  with  iron. 

620 


SHIPMENTS  IN  DRUMS  AND  CARBOYS    621 

inflammable  liquids,  may  very  well  be  taken  as  a  model 
to  be  followed  by  all  shippers  for  export  of  every  com- 
modity for  which  drums  are  used.  The  following  are 
extracts  from  the  official  regulations  in  question,  full 
particulars  of  which  are  readily  available  from  the 
Commission: 

''It  is  recommended  that,  when  nature  of  contents  will 
permit,  each  such  container  should  be  coated  on  the  inside 
and  outside  in  such  manner  and  with  such  material  as 
will  prevent  corrosion. 

*'An  iron  or  steel  barrel  or  drum  with  a  nominal 
capacity  of  over  55  gallons,  but  not  over  110  gallons, 
must  be  constructed  of  metal  the  minimum  thickness  of 
which  in  any  part  of  the  completed  barrel  or  drum  must 
be  not  less  than  full  No.  14  gauge,  United  States 
standard. 

''The  weight  of  a  barrel  or  drum  with  a  nominal 
capacity  of  100  to  110  gallons  must  be  not  less  than  130 
pounds  in  the  black  exclusive  of  the  rolling  hoops. 

"An  iron  or  steel  barrel  or  drum  with  a  nominal 
capacity  of  over  35  gallons,  but  not  over  55  gallons,  must 
be  constructed  of  metal  the  minimum  thickness  of  which 
in  any  part  of  the  completed  barrel  or  drum  must  not  be 
less  than  full  No.  16  gauge,  United  States  standard. 

"The  weight  of  a  barrel  or  drum  with  q  nominal 
capacity  of  50  to  55  gallons  must  not  be  less  than  70 
pounds  in  the  black  exclusive  of  the  rolling  hoops. 

"An  iron  or  steel  barrel  or  drum  with  a  nominal 
capacity  of  over  10  gallons,  but  not  over  35  gallons,  must 
have  a  minimum  thickness  of  metal  in  any  part  of  Ihe 
completed  barrel  or  drum  of  not  less  than  full  No.  18 
gauge.  United  States  standard. 

"An  iron  or  steel  barrel  or  drum  with  a  nominal 
capacity  of  not  more  than  10  gallons  must  have  a  mini- 
mum thickness  of  metal  in  any  part  of  the  completed 
barrel  or  drum  of  not  less  than  full  No.  20  gauge.  United 
States  standard. 

"Each  barrel  or  drum  must  be  tested  under  water  or 
with  all  seams  covered  with  soapsuds  or  heavy  oil,  by 


622  EXPORT  PACKING 

interior  compressed  air  at  a  pressure  of  not  less  than  15 
pounds  per  square  inch  sustained  for  not  less  than  two 
minutes,  and  must  stand  this  test  without  leaking. 

**The  type  of  barrel  or  drum  must  be  capable  of 
standing  without  leaking  a  hydrostatic  test  pressure  of 
not  less  than  40  pounds  per  square  inch,  sustained  for 
not  less  than  5  minutes. 

**When  filled  with  water  to  98  per  cent  of  its  capacity 
the  type  of  barrel  or  drum  must  also  be  capable  of  stand- 
ing without  leakage  a  test  by  dropping  it  diagonally  on 
its  chime  from  a  height  of  4  feet  upon  a  solid  concrete 
foundation. 

**  Factory  tests  of  the  type  package  must  be  made  with 
sufficient  frequency  to  insure  that  the  product  complies 
with  the  above  paragraphs. 

*' Provision  must  be  made  for  closing  the  bungholes 
and  other  openings  in  such  manner  as  to  prevent  leak- 
age. Bungs  or  other  closing  devices  projecting  beyond 
the  chime  or  rolling  hoops  must  be  capable  of  withstand- 
ing the  same  test  drop  as  described  by  paragraph  9. 
Threaded  metal  plugs  must  be  close  fitting  and  threads 
in  the  reenforcements  and  on  the  plugs  must  be  cut  at 
right  angles  to  the  faced  surfaces  thereof  to  insure  a 
uniform  and  solid  bearing  throughout  the  entire  circum- 
ference of  the  gasket.  Gaskets  must  be  made  of  lead, 
fiber,  leather,  or  other  suitable  material.  Wooden  bungs 
must  be  compressed,  tapered  bungs,  and  must  be  covered 
with  a  suitable  coating  and  have  a  driving  fit  into  a 
smooth  bung  hole  tapered  the  same  as  the  bung. 

**Note: — The  gaskets  and  the  flange  of  the  bung 
should  be  coated  with  gum  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol 
to  about  the  consistency  of  molasses  and  then  the  bung 
should  be  set  down  tight  with  a  wrench  having  a  handle 
at  least  18  inches  long.  The  barrel  should  then  be 
allowed  to  stand  on  end  for  a  few  hours  until  the  shellac 
dries,  after  which  the  barrel  should  be  placed  bung  down 
to  test  for  leakage  before  offering  for  shipment. 

**  Wooden  bungs  should  be  long  enough  to  extend 
about  %  inch  inside  of  the  barrel  and  should  be  soaked 


SHIPMENTS  IN  DRUMS  AND  CARBOYS    623 

in  hot  water  or  hot,  thin  glue  for  about  a  minute  before 
driving  into  the  bung  hole  so  that  the  interior  of  the 
bung  will  swell  and  form  a  shoulder  on  the  inside  of  the 
bung  hole. 

**The  method  of  manufacturing  the  barrel  or  drum 
and  the  materials  used  must  be  well  adapted  to  producing 
a  uniform  product.  Leaks  caused  by  defective  manu- 
facture of  a  barrel  or  drum  must  not  be  stopped  by  sol- 
dering, but  must  be  repaired  by  the  method  used  in  con- 
structing the  barrel  or  drum.'* 

Carboys.— Similar  specifications  included  in  the  regu- 
lations of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  apply  to 
carboys  of  glass  or  earthenware,  which  must  be  employed 
in  domestic  shipments  of  inflammable  or  corrosive  liquids 
and  these,  too,  may  be  accepted  as  desirable  practice 
applying  to  export  shipments.  Among  these  regulations 
the  following  paragraphs  may  be  quoted : 

**Any  glass  container  with  a  nominal  capacity  not 
less  than  10  gallons  shall  be  classed  as  a  carboy,  and  no 
carboy  used  for  the  shipment  of  acids  or  inflammable 
liquids  shall  have  a  nominal  capacity  of  more  than  13 
gallons. 

*  *  A  carboy  with  a  capacity  of  12  gallons  must  contain 
a  minimum  of  16  pounds  of  glass.  A  carboy  with  a 
capacity  of  13  gallons  must  contain  a  minimum  of  16% 
pounds  of  glass. 

^^Note: — The  glass  in  the  side  walls  of  molded  car- 
boys should  be  as  well  distributed  as  practicable  and  the 
minimum  thickness  should  be  not  less  than  2/32  inch. 

*^  Any  clay  or  earthenware  container  of  not  less  than  5 
gallons  (nominal  capacity)  shall  be  classed  as  a  carboy. 
No  clay  or  earthenware  carboy  shall  have  a  (nominal) 
capacity  of  more  than  13  gallons. 

' '  The  material  in  the  bottom  and  side  walls  of  clay  or 
earthenware  carboys  shall  be  as  evenly  distributed  as 
practicable  and  the  minimum  thickness  shall  not  be  less 
than  %  inch.    The  carboys  shall  be  acid  proof. 

**The  carboy  must  be  closed  (a)  by  having  an  earthen- 
ware or  glass  stopper  inserted  into  the  mouth  of  the 


624  EXPORT  PACKING 

« 
carboy,  sealed  in  place  by  clay,  plaster  of  Paris,  or  simi- 
lar material  in  a  plastic  condition,  and  securely  fastened 
with  burlap  or  other  suitable  material  drawn  tight  and 
securely  tied  under  the  lip  of  the  mouth  with  strong  cord ; 
(b)  by  a  glass  or  earthenware  stopper  with  gasket, 
secured  by  metal  fastenings;  (c)  by  a  glass  or  earthen- 
ware stopper  ground  to  fit,  secured  by  burlap  or  other 
suitable  material;  (d)  if  the  contents  of  the  carboy  are 
not  corrosive,  by  a  cork  or  other  similar  closing  device 
securely  fastened  in  place  to  prevent  leakage. 

**The  body  of  the  carboy  must  be  completely  inclosed 
in  a  strong  wooden  box  and  so  cushioned  by  proper  pack- 
ing material  that  the  glass  will  not  come  in  contact  w^ith 
the  wooden  or  iron  covering.  (This  requirement  does 
not  apply  to  the  wooden  or  metal  elastic  strips  used  to 
cushion  the  carboy.) 

**A11  wooden  carboy  boxes  used  as  outside  con- 
tainers for  carboys  must  'comply  with  the  following 
specifications : 

^  *  The  material  from  which  these  boxes  are  made  must 
be  of  good  sound  white  pine  or  any  wood  of  equal  or 
superior  strength.  All  lumber  must  be  dry  and  well  sea- 
soned, and  must  not  have  loose  knots  in  any  part.  Mini- 
mum thickness  of  lumber  specified  refers  to  the  actual 
thickness  in  the  finished  boxes. 

*^The  thickness  of  the  top,  bottom,  ends,  and  sides 
must  be.  not  less  than  %  inch. 

*^The  four  vertical  edges  must  be  reenforced  in  a 
suitable  manner  to  secure  strength  and  stiffness.  For 
rectangular  lead  carboys  this  reenforcement  is  not  re- 
quired, but  two  of  the  sides  must  be  of  lumber  not  less 
than  114  inches  in  thickness. 

*  *  The  box  must  be  nailed  with  nails  not  smaller  than 
7-penny  at  approximately  2-inch  centers  or  8-penny  nails 
at  approximately  2i/^-inch  centers.  The  sides  and  ends 
of  the  box  must  be  nailed  together  and  also  to  the  reen- 
f  orcing  pieces. 

*^  There  must  be  two  cleats  not  less  than  yg"  ^  !%"» 
one  placed  on  each  end  of  the  box  for  carrying  and  two 


SHIPMENTS  IN  DRUMS  AND  CARBOYS    625 

cleats  not  less  than  y^"  x  1%"  across  the  ends  of  the  bot- 
tom of  the  box  to  act  as  shoes  and  to  protect  the  bottom 
of  the  carboy. 

*^The  cushioning  support  for  all  carboys  must  be  such 
that  the  type  of  box,  when  containing  the  carboy  filled 
with  water  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  neck  and  properly 
packed  and  cushioned,  must  be  able  to  withstand  the 
following  tests: 

*^(a)  By  dropping  on  its  bottom  onto  a  concrete  or 
brick  floor  from  each  of  the  heights  of  6  inches,  12  inches, 
18  inches,  24  inches,  etc.,  in  succession.  Each  box  must 
withstand  the  first  three  drops  without  serious  injury, 
and  in  testing  not  less  than  three  packages  the  average 
maximum  drop  withstood  by  at  least  two  of  them  without 
breakage  of  the  carboy  must  not  be  less  than  24  inches. 

*^(b)  By  suspending  as  a  14-foot  pendulum  and 
swinging  against  a  concrete  or  brick  wall  with  successive 
swings  the  vertical  components  of  which  are  6  inches,  9 
inches,  12  inches,  15  inches,  18  inches,  etc.  Each  box 
must  withstand  the  first  four  blows  without  serious 
injury,  and  in  testing  not  less  than  three  packages  the 
average  maximum  swing  withstood  by  at  least  two  of 
them  without  breakage  of  the  carboy  must  be  a  swing 
with  a  vertical  component  of  not  less  than  12  inches. 

^*Note: — For  carboys  cushioned  with  hay  or  similar 
material  the  space  between  the  sides  of  the  carboy  and 
the  box  should  be  about  1  Vj  inches.'' 

Steel  Cylinders  for  Gases.— *' Cylinders  used  for  the 
shipment  of  any  gas,  not  liquefied,  and  not  in  solution, 
whose  charging  pressure  does  not  exceed  300  pounds  per 
square  inch,  at  70°  F.,  must  comply  with  the  following 
specifications :  (a)  Cylinders  must  be  made  of  basic  open 
hearth  steel,  (b)  Chemical  analysis :  carbon  .06  to  .20  per 
cent ;  phosphorus  not  to  exceed  .04  per  cent ;  sulphur  not 
to  exceed  .05  per  cent.  The  chemical  analysis  must  be 
verified  by  check  analyses  made  on  samples  taken  from 
one  out  of  each  order  or  lot  of  200  or  less  plates,  shells 
or  tubes  from  which  the  cylinders  are  to  be  made.  One 
analysis  from  any  one  heat  of  steel  is  sufficient. 


626  EXPORT  PACKING 

*'A11  seamless  cylinders  must  be  uniformly  and  prop- 
erly annealed. 

**The  length  of  thread  for  connections,  such  as  valves, 
fuse  plugs,  gauge,  etc.,  must  be  equal  to  the  standard 
lengths  specified  for  different  sizes  of  pipe  thread 
tappings. 

**  Standard  taper  pipe  threads  must  be  employed  on 
all  threading  for  connections  to  cylinder,  and  these  con- 
nections must  be  tapped  to  gauge  with  clean  cut  threads 
so  as  to  insure  tight  joints. 

**When  a  cylinder  to  contain  inflammable  gas  is  not 
to  be  boxed  or  crated  for  shipment,  the  safety  and  dis- 
charge valves  and  other  connections  must  be  made  safe 
from  injury  during  transit :  (1)  By  being  set  into  a  recess 
of  the  cylinder  so  that  it  will  be  impossible  for  them  to  be 
struck  if  the  cylinder  is  dropped  on  a  flat  surface;  or  (2) 
by  a  cap,  or  collar,  fastened  to  the  cylinder  (not  to  the 
valve  or  connection),  this  cap  or  collar  to  be  capable  of 
withstanding  a  blow  delivered  in  any  direction  of  a  30- 
pound  weight  falling  4  feet,  and  constructed  so  that  this 
blow  will  not  be  transmitted  to  the  valve  or  connection ;  or 
(3)  by  such  construction  of  the  valves  and  connections 
that  they  will  withstand  a  test  consisting  of  standing  the 
cylinder  upright  on  its  base  and  gradually  tipping  it  over, 
allowing  it  to  fall  so  that  the  end  of  the  valve  or  connec- 
tion will  strike  on  a  block  of  some  unyielding  substance, 
such  as  stone  or  iron  (not  wood).  The  block  must  be  so 
arranged  that  the  end  of  the  valve  or  connection  will 
strike  the  block  just  before  the  side  of  the  cylinder  strikes 
the  floor  or  ground.  No  leak  must  develop  under  this 
test.  During  the  test  indicated  in  (3)  above,  the  cylinder 
must  contain  compressed  air  or  gas  under  a  pressure  of 
at  least  50  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  the  absence  of 
leakage  after  the  test  is  completed  must  be  verified  by 
application  of  soapsuds  or  by  other  suitable  method." 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
EXPORT  SHIPPING  OF  BULKY  ARTICLES 

SHIPMENTS  of  certain  units  of  exceptionally  large 
dimensions  may  involve  peculiar  problems  of  their 
own,  ranging  from  provisions  to  be  adopted  for 
safely  loading  and  unloading,  up  to  special  forms  of  pro- 
tection of  different  kinds.  Shipments  of  motor  boats, 
aeroplanes,  locomotive  and  other  boilers,  street  cars,  rail- 
way, freight  and  passenger  cars,  when  not  forwarded 
knocked  down  or  dismantled,  frequently  assume  the 
dimensions  of  a  small  house;  and  not  rarely  have  to  be 
carried  on  .decks  of  steamers  because  too  great  in  diame- 
ter to  be  passed  down  the  hatchways,  very  especially  in 
the  case  of  older  and  smaller  vessels,  or  sometimes  be- 
cause too  long  to  admit  of  being  stowed  away  in  the  holds 
because  it  is  impossible  to  slide  them  diagonally  through 
the  'tween-deck  spaces.  Everyone  who  has  ever  traveled 
on  a  foreign-bound  steamship  has  observed  a  great  many 
of  these  large  deck  shipments,  and  is  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  fashion  in  which  they  are  lashed  to  the  decks, 
and  the  perils  which  they  must  necessarily  undergo. 
They  are  exposed  to  all  sorts  of  misuse  and  various  kinds 
of  attack  from  steamships'  crews  and  from  the  steerage 
passengers,  if  any  are  carried,  and  even  more  seriously 
exposed  to  veritable  deluges  of  salt  water,  as  waves  break 
over  the  decks,  sometimes  for  several  days  in  succession 
during  a  storm;  while  in  any  event  they  are  bound  to 
receive  the  full  effect  of  downpours  of  rain,  alternating 
with  possibly  a  scorching  hot  sun  in  the  tropics. 

Case  Constmction.— Apart  from  the  thoroughly 
strong  construction  that  cases,  when  any  are  needed  in 
the  shipment  of  this  sort  of  cargo,  will  require,  no  special 
instructions  need  here  be  noted,  inasmuch  as  the  subject 
has  been  fully  dealt  with  under  the  heading  of  **Machin- 

627 


628  EXPORT  PACKING 

ery,"  and  in  Captain  Knowlton^s  special  chapter  appear- 
ing in  earlier  pages  in  this  volume.  It  may  be  well,  how- 
ever, to  observe  that  in  practice  cases  for  all  parcels 
likely  to  be  shipped  on  steamers*  decks  should  be  con- 
structed of  matched — that  is,  tongued  and  grooved — 
lumber.  Furthermore,  the  skids  on  which  such  cases  are 
mounted,  and  which  will  in  almost  every  instance  natur- 
ally be  supplied  by  the  shipper  for  the  safe  transporta- 
tion of  Jiis  products,  should,  when  deck  shipments  are 
contemplated  or  may  become  necessary,  be  of  such  a 
height  as  to  raise  the  floor  of  the  case  above  the  deck. 
This  will  permit  the  free  passage  of  sea  or  rain  water 
under  the  case. 

Sling  Marks.— Much  of  the  cargo  of  the  description 
now  under  consideration  is  heavy  as  well  as  bulky,  and 
often  involves  more  power  for  loading  and  unloading 
than  the  usual  ships'  winches  can  supply.  When  this  is 
the  case,  such  exceptionally  heavy  pieces  have  to  be  lifted 
by  special  derricks  either  on  wharves  or  on  specially  con- 
structed floating  lighters  which  are  towed  alongside  of 
ships  for  this  express  purpose.  When  parcels  are  excep- 
tionally long,  it  is  often  necessary  to  employ  two  winches 
or  two  derricks  for  their  hoisting  aboard,  and  for  their 
unloading  at  destination  or  at  transhiping  points.  In 
any  event,  after  the  suitable  construction  of  cases — ^when 
any  are  required — the  first  and  most  important  consid- 
eration is  the  determination  of  the  center  of  gravity  of 
the  piece  being  shipped,  and  the  location  and  suitable 
marking  of  the  points  at  which  the  slings  must  be  applied. 
In  a  general  way,  this  point  has  already  been  discussed 
and  fully  emphasized  in  other  chapters  in  this  volume,  to 
which  reference  should  now  be  made. 

Waterproofing. — Dangers  incurred  by  deck  cargo 
from  rains  or  from  the  wash  of  the  sea  have  already  been 
emphasized.  It  seems  to  be  the  custom  of  shippers  of 
this  sort  of  cargo  to  give  chief  attention  to  the  construc- 
tion of  a  felt  or  tarred  paper  roof  to  cover  the  package 
intended  for  deck  shipment,  or  which  may  have  to  under- 
go that  kind  of  stowing.    Specially  prepared  roofing  is, 


EXPORT  SHIPPING  OF  BULKY  ARTICLES  629 

of  course,  admirable  so  far  as  it  goes,  but  it  is  to  be  feared 
that  a  good  many  shippers  forget  or  neglect  the  desir- 
ability of  also  protecting  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  the 
cases.  Such  protection  is  called  for  because  of  the  obvi- 
ously equal  danger  of  wetting,  and  so  far  as  the  floors  of 
cases  are  concerned,  because  of  the  very  great  danger  of 
water  seeping  through,  soaking  up  or  stagnating  in 
puddles  on  the  floors,  with  possible  resulting  damage  to 
delicate  or  susceptible  parts  of  the  contents  of  cases. 
With  such  considerations  in  mind,  the  shipper  need  only 
further  refer  to  remarks  on  the  subject  of  waterproofing 
in  general  which  appear  in  many  previous  pages. 

Protection  Against  Pilfering.— All  bulky  deck  cargo 
is,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  open  to  the  approach  of  every 
member  of  the  vessel's  crew,  who  usually  have  plenty  of 
time  to  lounge  about,  whittle  and  generally  amuse  them- 
selves with  such  objects.  Cutting  a  hole  in  a  large  case 
carried  on  a  steamer's  deck  might  be  an  innocent  form 
of  diversion,  or  it  might  be  done  purposely  with  a  view 
to  getting  a  glance  at  the  contents  and  seeing  what  was 
readily  within  reach  inside  of  the  case.  Brass  fittings, 
tool  cases,  accessories  which  might  seem  tempting,  ought 
not  to  be  placed  inside  of  such  cases,  or  at  least  if  so 
placed,  should  be  located  in  such  a  part  of  the  case,  or  so 
protected  from  the  walls  of  the  case,  that  no  pilfering, 
even  by  the  removal  of  a  whole  board,  would  be  possible. 

Let  us  now  proceed  to  an  examination  of  the  practice 
and  policy  of  some  manufacturers  shipping  products 
which  may  be  of  the  description  to  which  this  chapter  is 
devoted.  It  will  be  observed  that  just  as  some  of  the 
shipping  features  to  which  reference  has  just  been  made 
apply  to  other  commodities,  for  example,  automobiles, 
which  are  not  considered  especially  under  this  heading, 
so  also  some  of  the  products  v.^hose  shipment  is  here 
described  may  be  dispatched  disassembled  or  in  a 
knocked  down  condition,  or  they  may  sometimes  be 
shipped  practically  assembled.    See  cut  page  638. 

Locomotives.— The  European  war  made  immense  and 
instant  demands  upon  the  builders  of  locomotives  in  the 


630  EXPORT  PACKING 

United  States,  and  it  was  fortunate  that  this  industry 
had  prepared  itself  by  a  long  and  honorable  career  in 
the  export  field.  Much  that  was  new  in  export  packing 
practice  was  developed  by  the  exigencies  of  war,  but  the 
locomotive  companies  for  many  years  have  been  aggres- 
sive and  consistent  builders  for  export  trade,  and  the 
technical  skill  of  the  men  in  charge  of  this  industry  has 
made  possible  a  very  thorough  and  fundamental  study 
of  the  shipping  and  packing  problem. 

The  export  packing  of  locomotives  brings  us  the  prob- 
lem not  alone  of  packing  instruments  of  great  delicacy 
and  precision,  but  as  well  that  of  the  successful  disposi- 
tion of  large  masses  where  the  equalization  of  strains 
must  be  carefully  watched.  In  addition  to  the  equaliza- 
tion of  strains  and  the  careful  study  of  gravity  centers 
the  case  must  be  so  constructed  that  it  is  fully  sufficient 
for  its  purpose.  This  has  brought  about  a  most  careful 
laboratory  and  shipping  practice  which,  in  the  great  loco- 
motive factories  of  the  country,  has  really  developed  into 
a  science  all  by  itself. 

With  reference  to  the  export  packing  of  locomotives, 
a  well-known  corporation  supplies  the  author  with  photo- 
graphs (see  page  631),  and  with  copies  of  its  shipping  in- 
structions, from  which  the  following  is  selected: 

**1.  Construction  of  Packing  Boxes. 
■  **A.  For  boxes  exceeding  100  cubic  feet  displacement 
or  weighing  more  than  5,000  pounds,  use  lumber  origin- 
ally 11/4"  thick,  rough  planed  on  one  side,  or  on  both 
sides  when  this  can  be  done  in  one  operation.  Boxes  to 
be  double  boarded;  inner  course  running  longitudinally, 
outer  course  vertically. 

*^B.  For  boxes  smaller,  or  weighing  less  than  that 
specified  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  use  lumber  origin- 
ally 2"  thick,  rough  planed,  using  planed  surface  for  out- 
side of  box. 

*^C.  Make  boxes  of  sound  spruce  or  its  equivalent, 
and  use  oak  or  hard  wood  of  equivalent  strength  for  bat- 
tens and  comers.  Bind  corners  and  sides  of  all  boxes 
with  11/2"  hoop  iron  No.  16,  secured  by  wire  nails.    Thor- 


(JoHtusii  i)j  Anuricun  Jjvcnmotirr  to. 

Packing  of  Locomotive  Parts. 

(Left)     Case   containing   cylinder  heads,  guides,  rods,  and  valves.      (Right) 
Shows  tender  frame,  brake  details  and  piping  in  case. 


9 


Courtesy  of  American  Car  tt  Foundry  Co. 

Packing  of  Freight  Cars. 

Freight  car  knocked  down  ready  for  shipment.     Note  all  brass  material  has 
been  removed, 

631 


Courtesy  of  Consolidated  Shipbuilding  Corporation. 
Crated  Launch  Being  Hoisted  on  Ship. 

Crate  shown  is  for  gasoline  launch  k2  feet  long,  9  feet  6  inches  beam,  and 
12  feet  high,  approximate  weight  8  to  10  tons.  Launch  is  firmly  fastened  in 
cradle  and  crate  substantially  built. 


Courtesy  of  Curtiss  Aeroplane  d  Motor  Corp. 
Packing  of  Aeroplane. 
Shows  hull   being  shipped  intact   to  facilitate  erection  in   the  field. 

632 


EXPORT  SHIPPINCt  OF  BULKY  ARTICLES  633 

oughly  secure  material  in  all  boxes  to  avoid  any  possi- 
bility of  its  shifting  and  consequent  injury.  Brace  suf- 
ficiently between  top  and  bottom  of  all  boxes  to  avoid 
crushing  when  heavy  materials,  such  as  wheels,  trucks, 
etc.,  are  stowed  on  top. 

'^D.  All  packing  cases  should  be  ventilated  by  boring 
a  line  of  holes  two  inches  in  diameter  and  four  feet  apart 
on  all  sides  of  the  caises,  about  one  foot  from  the  top,  and 
a  corresponding  line  of  holes  one  foot  from  the  bottom. 

^'2.  Packing  Parts  Into  Boxes, 

'*  A.  Ship  nothing  in  which  water  is  liable  to  have  col- 
lected without  draining,  to  avoid  injury  to  parts  by 
freezing.  Avoid  delay  and  annoyance  in  assembling 
engines  at  destination  by  packing  all  material  necessary 
for  each  in  boxes  for  that  engine.  Do  not  use  excelsior, 
sawdust,  shavings,  etc.,  in  packing.  Allow  nothing  to 
come  in  contact  with  varnished  surfaces  of  tank,  cab  and 
other  material  of  like  nature.  Whenever  possible,  engi- 
neers who  are  to  have  charge  of  assembling  engines  at 
destination  should  be  in  the  shop  during  the  dismantling 
and  packing. 

"B.  Steamship  freight  rates  are  based  upon  a  dis- 
placement of  40  cubic  feet  per  long  ton,  and  charges  are 
assessed  on  basis  of  weight  or  measurements  at  ship's 
option,  whichever  will  net  them  the  larger  revenue.  As 
far  as  possible,  pack  boxes  so  the  maximum  weight  is 
obtained  with  reference  to  cubical  measurements  of  box. 
The  maximum  length,  height  and  width  are  used  to  cal- 
culate displacement  of  boxes  or  unboxed  parts,  such  as 
boilers,  driving  wheels,  trucks,  etc.  All  projections  such 
as  dome  cap  and  projecting  studs  must  be  removed. 

''C.  Bulky,  heavy  and  lengthy  cargo  shipped  over- 
land via  Pacific  Coast  ports,  destined  to  Australia  and 
Oriental  points,  are  subject  to  arbitrary  and  tranship- 
ment charges  beyond  port  of  call  given  in  Trans-Conti- 
nental Freight  Bureau  Circular  No.  55-A  and  supple- 
ments. As  far  as  possible,  such  packages  should  be  con- 
fined to  weights  or  measurements  under  the  following,  on 
which  extra  charges  are  levied: 


634  EXPORT  PACKING 

**  Lengthy  cargo — 24'  or  more — add  20%  regular  rate. 

''Bulky  cargo — 2  tons  (80  cu.  ft.)  or  more — add  30% 
regular  rate. 

''Heavy  cargo — each  weighing  1  ton  (2,000  pounds)  or 
more — add  50%  regular  rate. 

*'D.  The  weight  of  individual  cases,  wherever  pos- 
sible, must  not  exceed  three  tons  when  shipment  is  made 
to  South  Africa.  An  additional  freight  rate  is  paid  on 
shipments  in  excess  of  three  tons.  Tires  on  all  foreign 
orders,  when  not  applied  to  driving  wheels,  need  not  be 
cased. 

*'3.  Slushing  Compound. 

"Mixtures  referred  to  in  these  instructions  are  as 
follows : 

"No.  1. — Composed  of  20  pounds  white  lead 

"  10  pounds  tallow 
'*  1  gal.  black  oil 
"  5  pounds  beeswax 

"No.  2. — ^Warren  Slushing  Compound. 

"No.  3. — Compound  similar  to  No.  2,  made  by  Gen- 
eral Electric  Company. 

* '  Note : — Mixture  of  No.  2  or  No.  3  should  be  removed 
by  use  of  carbon  oil. 

"4.  Marking  Parts. 

"In  the  absence  of  specifications  or  special  instruc- 
tions, mark  by  stenciling,  stamping,  or  with  a  zinc  tag 
wired  to  the  parts  (except  as  noted),  all  parts  which  are 
removed  from  engine  for  packing,  with  the  road  number 
of  the  engine  to  which  the  parts  belong  and  with  the 
letters  'R'  or  'L'  (signifying  its  position  on  the  right  or 
left  side)  where  necessary. 

"5.  Stamping. 

' '  The  character  and  finish  of  the  work  will  determine 
size  of  stamp  to  be  used,  e.  g.,  letters  or  figures  3/16"  high 
will  be  sufficiently  clear  for  the  motion  work  and  other 
finished  parts,  but  for  rough  and  unmachined  forgings  or 
castings  use  letters  or  figures  not  less  than  %"  high. 

"6.  Tagging. 

"Wire  zinc  tags  to  parts  not.  stamped.     Linen  tags 


EXPORT  SHIPPING  OF  BULKY  ARTICLES  635 

should  not  be  used,  as  marking  becomes  illegible.  Zinc 
tags  to  be  made  with  'Roovers'  embossing  press.  On 
these  tags  add  such  information,  in  addition  to  marking 
specified  in  paragraph  4,  as  will  clearly  identify  the 
character  or  location  of  parts. 

*^7.  Stenciling  Packages. 

**A.  The  order  number,  serial  number  and  letter  in- 
dicating package  will  be  stenciled  on  top  and  sides  of 
boxes,  illustrated  by  accompanying  sketch,  explained  as 
follows:  S-571  is  order  number.  Numeral  6  is  serial  num- 
ber of  engine  in  order.  Letter  A  (or  any  other  letter) 
is  package  designation,  for  instance,  S-571-6-A  would 
mean  package  A  of  the  6th  engine  of  order  S-571. 


Courtesy  of  American  Locomotive  Co. 


**B.  Packages  will  also  be  stenciled  with  the  gross, 
tare  or  net  weights  in  pounds  and  cubic  measurements 
(some  foreign  countries  also  require  weights  in  kilos). 

'*C.  Unless  advised  to  the  contrary,  packages  com- 
prising the  first  engine  will  be  numbered  from  '1'  up, 
the  second  engine  ^51'  up,  the  third  engine  *101'  up,  etc. 
etc. 

^^8.  Preparing  Packing  Lists. 

'  ^  A.  Make  packing  lists  for  each  package  on  standard 
form  P  D  66-A  revised,  and  summary  on  form  P  D  66-B 
revised.  The  packing  lists  must  be  complete  and  specific- 
ally mention  every  part  that  goes  into  a  box  for  which 
list  is  made.  Nine  copies  of  packing  list,  showing  gross, 
tare  and  net  weights  in  pounds  and  cubic  measurements. 


636  EXPORT  PACKING 

and  summary  thereof  for  each  engine  (some  foreign 
countries  also  require  weight  in  kilos),  together  with  bills 
of  lading  marked  *For  Export/  will  be  transmitted  to 
Traffic  Manager  on  date  of  shipment. 

*^B.  When  an  order  of  locomotives  is  divided  between 
two  or  more  plants,  the  packing  lists  must  be  identical 
for  each  plant.  A  uniform  packing  list  will  be  prepared 
and  approved  by  each  plant  involved,  after  which  it  will 
be  printed,  leaving  blank  the  space  for  the  name  of  the 
works.  In  the  event  of  deviation  from  the  packing  list 
as  printed,  due  to  short  shipment,  proper  notation  will  be 
made  on  the  sheet  affected. 

'*C.  Packing  list  must  distinctly  state  whether  the 
material  is  cased,  uncased,  crated  or  otherwise  packed. 
For  instance,  shipments  of  globes  or  other  glass  in  a 
barrel  must  be  specified  'barrel'  and  not  'box,'  as  the 
foreign  customs  regulations  are  such  that  the  least  pos- 
sible error  in  declaring  consignments  results  in  a  heavy 
fine  being  imposed.  These  instructions  must  be  strictly 
complied  with. 

'*D.  Weights  and  measurements  given  in  packing  lists 
must  agree  with  those  stenciled  on  boxes,  as  packing  list 
weights  are  used  for  making  declaration  for  customs,  and 
custom  authorities  check  these  with  weights  stenciled  on 
boxes.  Check  carefully  to  see  that  weights  are  properly 
figured  out  and  that  net  weight  stenciled  on  box  is 
correct.'' 

Railway  Cars.— In  an  interview  a  large  shipper  de- 
scribed as  follows  the  methods  used  in  foreign  shipments 
of  freight  and  passenger  cars ; 

Substantially  the  same  methods  are  used  in  the  ship- 
ments of  freight  and  passenger  cars,  both  classes  of  cars 
being  disassembled  and  packed  practically  in  the  same 
manner.  In  the  case  of  very  small  freight  cars  and  in 
that  of  small  trolley  cars,  sometimes  there  is  no  disassem- 
bling, and  the  cars  are  sent  out  cased  so  that  they  may 
be  put  on  the  rails  as  soon  as  received.  The  reasons  for 
this  form  of  shipment  are  generally  questions  of  urgency 
when  it  is  desired  to  place  the  cars  in  commission  at  once, 


Court,  sj,  0/  Cn-ttss  Anoplane  d  Motor  Corp. 

Methods  of  Cratkng  Aeroplane. 

h/o^w««''/n^i.^M*r°»*^'"r'^  ''^  f'<''f'^'<ork  of  box  b!f  crosH  truss  bracing  Note 
blocking  to  hold  hull  m  place,  precautious  taken  to  prevent  weavina  sn  that  J^ 
jecting  wings  do  not  come  in  contact  with  box        '"^*^'^*^"^  weaving  so  that  pro- 


Courtesy  of  Curtiss  Aeroplane  d  Motor  Corp. 
Bracing  op  Aeroplane  in  Packing  Case. 
w„^"iif  i^^j^r'2^owfal   position   on   cradle   corresponding   to   bottom   lines.     Hull 
l.FJif'^/ut'^-i'^  ^^r^  ^"  ''^^  "Jf**"  ^^"**  ^^^  b^ocAmfir.    .Padded  auxiliary  bents 
support     tail.'      As  many  auxiliary  parts  as  possible  are  included  in  box 

637 


Courtesy  of  Curtiss  Aeroplane  d  Motor  Cor\ 
Crated  Aeroplane. 
Crated  aeroplane  being  hoisted  on  ship. 


Courtesy  of  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works. 
Locomotive  Prepared  for  Shipment. 
Pershing  type  locomotive  prepared  for  shipment  without  being  knofked  down^ 


638 


EXPORT  SHIPPING  OF  BULKY  ARTICLES  639 

or  where  there  are  no  adequate  means  of  assembling  them 
after  arrival  at  destination.  A  typical  package  of  such  a 
shipment  would  measure  about  8'  x  10'  x  18',  the  case 
being  constructed  of  3"  material  and  solidly  bolted  to- 
gether with  long  bolts  ninning  from  one  side  to  the  other 
of  the  case.  In  addition  to  this  the  struts  and  other  sup- 
ports of  the  package  are  unusually  strong,  as  a  package 
of  this  size  requires  the  most  careful  designing. 

The  great  majority  of  shipments  are,  however,  sent 
out  disassembled,  and  the  photograph  herewith  (see  cut, 
page  631)  clearly  illustrates  the  method  followed.  This 
photograph  shows  one  car  complete  as  shipped.  The 
trucks  are  shipped  by  themselves,  as  shown  in  the  photo- 
graph, after  the  removal  of  all  brass  bushings  and  other 
brass  material,  as  there  is  danger  of  this  being  stolen  en 
route.  These  fittings,  as  well  as  other  parts,  are  packed 
in  a  standard  case.  The  floor  of  the  car  is  shipped  as  one 
section,  except  in  cases  of  exceptionally  long  cars,  where 
the  shipment  may  be  composed  of  two  sections.  The  two 
ends  are  placed  back  to  back  and  shipped  as  one  package, 
and  the  sides  are  treated  in  the  same  way  as  the  ends. 
The  roof  may  be  shipped  as  one  or  two  sections,  except 
when  composed  of  galvanized  iron  or  steel,  in  which  case 
the  material  is  shipped  knocked  down  and  the  roof  built 
after  arrival  of  goods  at  destination.  This  description 
applies  as  well  to  passenger  as  to  freight  cars. 

Motor  Boats.— The  export  packing  of  the  launch  or 
motor  boat  offers  some  very  interesting  problems,  as 
does  that  of  the  packing  of  the  gasoline  marine  engine. 
In  the  case  of  the  launch^  the  boat  must  be  thoroughly 
protected,  as  many  of  these  craft  have  had  considerable 
sums  spent  on  the  finish  of  wooden  and  metal  parts,  and 
in  addition  there  is  the  problem  of  the  handling  of  a 
large  mass  which  must  not  be  subjected  to  undue  strains. 
A  prominent  manufacturer  of  launches  and  engines 
writes  as  follows :  **  We  have  had  considerable  experience 
in  the  packing  of  launches  and  engines  for  export.  In 
shipping  a  launch  which  is  forwarded  by  steamer,  the  des- 
tination being  the  first  port  of  call,  we  use  a  substantial 


640  EXPORT  PACKING 

shipping  cradle  and  cover  the  boat  with  a  strong  muslin 
cover  to  protect  it  from  dirt  while  en  route.  This  we  have 
found  very  satisfactory  from  the  standpoint  that  in  han- 
dling the  boat  from  the  water  to  the  steamer's  deck  and 
again  back  into  the  water  at  the  port  of  destination,  the 
people,  in  handling  it,  can  readily  see  what  they  are  doing. 
However,  in  the  event  of  shipping  boats  that  remain  on 
deck  while  calls  are  made  at  other  ports  for  discharging 
cargo,  we  then  deem  it  advisable  that  the  boat  be  thor- 
oughly crated  or  boxed.  This,  of  course,  is  very  expen- 
sive and  it  requires  considerable  work  and  material  to 
make  a  substantial  crate  that  will  offer  the  proper  pro- 
tection, and  at  the  same  time  be  strong  enough  to  stand 
the  weight  of  superimposed  cargo. 

**The  photograph  (reproduced  on  page  632)  will  serve 
to  give  you  an  idea  of  the  crating  arrangement  used  by  us 
for  shipments.  These  photographs  show  a  crate  as  made 
to  protect  a  cabin  gasoline  launch  42  feet  long,  9  feet  6 
inches  beam,  and  12  feet  high,  weighing  approximately 
8  to  10  tons.  This  launch  was  shipped  to  Chile,  and  as 
you  will  note,  it  was  necessary  for  it  to  be  picked  up  at 
an  angle  so  that  it  could  be  loaded  into  the  hold  of  the 
ship.  This,  you  will  appreciate,  is  quite  an  undertaking, 
inasmuch  as  the  crate  must  be  built  substantially  and  the 
launch  fastened  securely  to  the  cradle  while  it  is  being- 
handled  in  this  position. 

**The  method  of  crating  launches  is  that  a  substantial 
cradle  is  bolted  together  under  the  launch,  then  the 
launch  is  securely  lashed  fore  and  aft  to  the  cradle  to 
prevent  it  from  shifting.  The  uprights  for  the  cradle  are 
then  fastened  to  the  cradle,  with  braces  across  the  top  of 
the  uprights  as  well  as  across  the  back  of  the  uprights. 
The  crating  material  is  then  fastened  fore  and  aft  from 
the  ends  and  over  the  top  with  braces  running  diagonally 
as  shown.  This  method  stiffens  the  crate  and  relieves  the 
boat  of  strain  and  the  crate  of  excessive  strain.  The  top 
of  the  crate  is  always  tight  and  covered  with  tar  paper, 
preventing  the  weather  from  injuring  the  launch. 

^*In  shipping  large  engines  for  export  to  Bombay, 


EXPORT  SHIPPING  OF  BULKY  ARTICLES  641 

India,  or  points  of  that  distance,  our  usual  practice, 
where  the  engine  weighs  five  to  ten  thousand  pounds,  is 
to  build  a  substantial  cradle,  bolt  the  engine  to  the  cradle, 
and  the  box  itself  of  tongued  and  grooved  material, 
double  thickness,  laid  diagonally.  A  box  of  this  kind  is 
substantial  enough  to  withstand  any  amount  of  weight 
that  can  be  piled  on  it  in  steamer's  hold. 

* '  Our  method  in  shipping  boats  to  the  Panama  Canal 
has  been  to  furnish  shipping  chocks,  as  a  boat  usually  is 
always  the  last  thing  aboard  a  steamer  and  the  first  part 
of  the  cargo  discharged.  Therefore,  the  crate  is  unneces- 
sary at  times,  as  with  large  packages  there  are  no  facili- 
ties for  discharging  it  on  a  dock.'* 

Aeroplanes.— A  large  manufacturer  and  exporter*  of 
aeroplanes  and  flying  boats  has  encountered  several  pe- 
culiar and  unusual  problems  in  making  export  shipments, 
chief  of  which,  perhaps,  is  that  of  guarding  against  the 
buckling  of  his  very  long  and  comparatively  light  cases 
in  the  process  of  loading  and  unloading.  The  minimum 
dimensions  of  the  cases  in  which  the  hulls  of  these  ma- 
chines are  shipped  are  43'  x  12'  81/2"  x  10'  5"— a  total 
of  5,673  cubic  feet,  or  about  142  measurement  tons.  This 
manufacturer  supplies  a  number  of  highly  interesting 
photographs,  which  may  be  referred  to  on  pages  632,  637, 
638.  However,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  engineering  staff 
of  this  company  is  now  engaged  in  a  series  of  researches 
and  experiments  looking  to  the  solving  of  the  delicate 
and  serious  problem  of  so  staying  these  long  and  light 
cases  that  no  danger  from  buckling  can  be  involved. 

In  shipments  of  this  description  there  is  not  only  the 
question  of  shipping  the  entire  hull  intact  in  order  to 
facilitate  quick  erection  on  the  field,  and  the  construction 
of  a  box  that  will  offer  adequate  protection  to  the  hull 
during  shipment,  but  there  is  also  the  question  of  meeting 
railway  i^equirements  of  ** clearance  widths''  (when  maxi- 
mum width  is  13'  6"  over  the  projecting  wings).  In  the 
shipment  of  one  exceptionally  large  machine  required 
during  the  war  by  the  French  Government,  and  to  be 
delivered  ready  for  operation,  it  was  necessary  to  employ 


642  EXPORT  PACKING 

two  canal  boats  lashed  together,  and  on  one  occasion  par- 
tially to  wreck  a  bridge  over  the  canal  through  which  the 
shipment  had  to  pass  on  its  way  to  tide-water.  It  is 
to  be  noted  from  the  photographs  that  the  load  of  the 
hull  is  transmitted  to  the  framework  of  the  box  by  means 
of  cross  truss-bracing.  Various  blocking  arrangements, 
cushions  filled  with  excelsior  and  braces,  hold  the  hull  in 
place,  special  precaution  being  taken  to  prevent  weaving 
so  that  the  projecting  wings  do  not  come  in  contact  with 
the  box. 

In  general,  the  side  walls  of  boxes  are  made  of  two 
layers  of  boards,  completely  lined  with  heavy  waterproof 
paper.  All  metal  parts  of  the  machine  are  liberally  cov- 
ere'd  with  vaseline,  and  all  wires  wrapped  with  paper. 

The  bottoms  of  the  cases  have  supporting  skids,  bev- 
eled off  at  the  ends.  Special  attention  is  paid  to  the 
waterproof  protection  of  the  tops  of  cases,  and  all  cor- 
ners are  strongly  reenforced  by  iron  banding  which,  in 
the  instance  of  the  waterproof  tops,  extends  all  around 
the  cases. 

So  far  as  possible,  auxiliary  parts  are  included  in 
the  shipping  cases  for  the  hulls,  but  in  many  instances  the 
panel  or  wing  boxes  are  packed  flat  in  special  cases,  sep- 
arated by  spring  board  slats  which  serve  as  cradles,  these 
boxes  being  intended  for  vertical  shipment;  skids  are 
provided  on  both  tops  and  bottoms. 

Further  details  regarding^  these  shipments  will  be 
noted  in  captions  to  the  several  cuts. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

PACKING  PRACTICES  IN  EXPORTING  SUNDRY 
COMMODITIES 

EVERY  phase  of  export  packing  has  heen  exhaus- 
tively treated  in  great  detail  in  this  volume.  The 
construction  of  cases  and  crates,  the  making  of 
bales,  the  shipment  of  bags  and  bundles,  the  kinds  of  lum- 
ber to  be  used,  nailing  and  strapping,  protection  against 
pilfering,  the  interior  packing  of  cases — all  have  been 
dwelt  upon.  In  this  chapter  will  appear  quotations  from 
letters  illustrating  the  practices  of  prominent  American 
manufacturers  and  shippers  as  applying  to  the  export 
shipments  of  their  particular  products,  which  it  is  hoped 
and  believed  will  prove  both  interesting  and  helpful  to 
other  shippers,  not  only  of  the  same  products  but  of  mer- 
chandise comparable  to  that  here  mentioned,  so  far  as 
packing  requirements  at  least  are  concerned.  The  ex- 
cerpts given  below  should  be  interpreted  in  the  light  of 
the  fact  that  they  represent  actual  practice,  and  that  such 
practice  may,  in  certain  cases,  be  susceptible  of  improve- 
ment. 

Before  proceeding,  however,  to  a  resume  of  some  of 
the  more  striking  and  important  from  among  the  hun- 
dreds of  letters  received  by  the  author,  reference  may 
here  briefly  be  made  to  one  feature  of  shipping  for  export 
which  has  not  previously  been  extensively  discussed. 

Crating  Together  Small  Boxes.— Certain  advantages 
may  be  gained,  when  boxes  of  quite  small  size  are  shipped, 
by  combining  in  one  shipping  package  several  of 
the  small  cases  and  strapping  them  into  a  crate, 
preferably  with  metal  banding,  although  this  is  some- 
times accomplished  by  the  use  of  wooden  cleats.  The  ad- 
vantage referred  to  is  most  notable  in  the  saving  of  han- 
dling charges,  which  may  be  imposed  either  at  port  of 

643 


644  EXPORT  PACKING 

shipment  or  at  ports  of  transhipment  or  ultimate  destina- 
tion at  a  stated  rate  per  package,  rather  than  at  a  rate 
on  a  weight  basis.  In  a  great  many  countries  and  in  vari- 
ous ports  of  the  world,  ranging  from  Buenos  Aires  to 
Constantinople,  charges  for  landing  from  steamer  to 
wharf,  carriage  from  wharf  to  custom  house,  porterage 
in  and  from  the  custom  house,  etc.,  may  he  based  on 
the  unit  handled,  no  matter  what  its  weight.  In  such  in- 
stances the  charge  on  a  small  box  of  corn  starch,  for  ex- 
ample, will  be  identically  the  same  as  the  charge  on  six 
boxes  of  corn  starch  if  they  are  crated  together,  making 
one  piece  for  handling  purposes.  Furthermore,  there  is 
the  consideration  of  ocean  freight  charges,  which,  as  has 
been  repeatedly  emphasized,  are  more  often  than  not  on 
the  basis  of  the  measurement,  not  the  weight  ton.  If  small 
cases  are  shipped  indiyidually  the  measurement  of  each 
may  involve  a  fraction  of  a  cubic  foot,  which  will  be 
counted  as  a  whole  foot  in  assessing  the  freight  charge, 
which  is  usually  on  the  basis  of  even  feet.  The  aggregate 
measurement  of  a  shipment  of  a  number  of  individual 
small  cases  may,  therefore,  very  much  exceed  the  meas- 
urement which  will  be  made  of  a  combination  of  the  same 
number  of  small  cases,  if  strapped  together  and  shipped 
as  one  package. 

A  great  many  kinds  of  merchandise  are  customarily 
shipped  in  small  boxes,  including  not  only  such  products 
as  corn  starch  and  raisins,  but,  as  will  be  noted  in  the 
chapter  in  this  volume  devoted  to  hardware,  makers  of 
small  electric  fan  motors  are  accustomed  to  pack  them 
individually  in  cases,  crating  three  or  more  individual 
boxes  together  into  a  single  shipping  package.  Hand 
sewing  machines  are  usually  packed  in  small  individual 
wooden  boxes,  two,  three  or  four  of  which  are  strapped 
together  into  a  single  crate,  usually  in  this  case  with 
wooden  cleats.  A  photograph  submitted  by  a  manufac- 
turer of  stove  polish,  reproduced  on  page  620,  shows  the 
method  of  crating  together  small  boxes  of  this  product, 
two  or  more  of  which  are  strapped  together  as  illustrated. 
Each  case  is  individually  bound  with  iron  to  give  it 


PACKING  SUNDRY  COMMODITIES         645 

strength  and  also  to  minimize  the  possibility  of  pilfering. , 

German  exporters,  before  the  war,  were  reported  as 
utilizing  this  method  of  crating  together  small  individual 
boxes  into  a  single  shipping  crate  and  as  having  intro- 
duced a  variation  of  this  kind  of  shipping,  which  indeed 
has  not  been  unknown  to  some  American  shippers.  When 
such  shipments  were  dispatched  to  Central  American 
destinations  and  to  some  other  countries  where  import 
duties  are  levied  on  the  basis  of  gross  weights,  arrange- 
ments were  made  with  the  ship's  carpenters  before  dis- 
charging packages  of  this  description  from  the  ship's 
hold  to  knock  off  the  outside  wooden  crating  which  held 
together  the  individual  small  boxes,  thus  saving  the 
importers  the  necessity  of  paying  duties  on  the  weight  of 
the  wooden  crating  which  held  the  individual  units  to- 
gether. This  may  be  a  rather  delicate  undertaking  in  a 
number  of  respects,  but  the  thought  and  study  brought 
to  bear  on  shipping  problems  thus  illustrated  may  well 
be  taken  as  an  example  and  inspiration  to  all  export 
shippers. 

Proceeding  now  to  a  review  of  some  of  the  letters 
received  from  important  manufacturing  concerns  describ- 
ing their  practices  in  export  packing,  the  following  are 
recommended  as  deserving  of  careful  reading  and  study : 

Provisions.— For  many  years  the  great  packing  com- 
panies of  the  United  States  have  been  in  the  front  rank 
of  aggressive  and  constructive  exporters.  Indeed,  they 
represent  the  type  of  exporter,  more  or  less  a  pioneer  in 
America  who,  by  investing  large  sums  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, has  performed  that  double  service  which  is  the  ideal 
of  export  work ;  that  is,  while  expanding  American  export 
trade  they  have  also  brought  efficiency  and  development 
to  more  or  less  primitive  countries. 

The  export  packing  done  by  the  great  provision  com- 
panies is  bewildering  in  its  volume  and  complexity,  and 
there  is  probably  no  angle  of  the  work  that  has  not  been 
considered  in  this  multiform  packing  endeavor.  For 
example,  the  experimental  side  has  been  most  carefully 
developed,  and  all  sorts  of  drop  and  tension  tests  have 


646  EXPORT  PACKING 

,been  applied  to  the  different  packages.  In  addition  to 
this  the  most  exhaustive  research  work  has  been  done 
with  two  trip  packages,  or  packages  sent  to  foreign  conn- 
tries  and  then  returned  simply  to  see  the  effect  of  the 
voyage.  Moreover,  results  have  been  consistently  and 
thoroughly  checked,  and  inspectors  have  been  constantly 
at  work  studying  the  conditions  in  foreign  fields  and  re- 
porting back  home  what  these  conditions  were.  For  ex- 
ample, a  style  of  packing  will  be  adopted  which  seems  to 
satisfy  requirements,  but  the  shipping  department  is  not 
content  with  mere  appearances.  This  package  is  sent 
out  and  all  of  its  vicissitudes  are  observed.  If  it  has  to 
go  through  the  test  of  being  tossed  to  the  ground  from 
the  head  of  a  West  Indian  negro  this  fact  is  noted,  or  if 
other  conditions  have  to  be  met  a  study  is  made  of  these 
conditions.  Because  of  these  facts  it  would  well  be  pos- 
sible to  devote  a  large  book  to  the  export  packing  of  a 
great  provision  house.  It  has  been  sought,  however,  in 
this  chapter  to  present  certain  typical  containers  that 
represent  quite  a  wide  range  of  usefulness. 

Photographs  supplied  by  a  Tery  large  packing  com- 
pany are  reproduced  on  page  647  and  are  in  general 
sufficiently  described  by  the  captions  printed  under  each 
cut.  The  following  points  are,  however,  to  be  noted.  In 
the  shipment  of  smoked  meats  cases  are  constructed  with 
open  spaces  on  both  sides  in  order  to  give  air  circulation, 
the  meat  contents  being  protected  from  rats  and  other 
vermin  by  a  wire  netting,  as  illustrated. 

Large  cases  holding  500  or  600  pounds  of  hams  or 
similar  products  packed  in  salt,  shipped  most  generally 
to  Europe  but  also  to  certain  southern  markets,  are 
usually  protected  at  the  ends  by  hickory  bands,  which 
this  company  has  found  preferable  to  iron  bands  in  the 
shipment  of  these  goods,  thus  preventing  injury  to  steve- 
dores or  others. 

Shipments  of  lard  compound  in  tins  are  commonly 
packed  by  this  concern  in  crates  as  illustrated  in  photo- 
graphs on  page  647.  The  advantages,  of  the  crates  are 
that  in  certain  countries  duties  are  paid  on  the  gross 


Courtesy  of  Swift  d  Co. 

Shipment  op  Smoked  Meats  and  Ham. 

(Left)  Case  contains  smoked  meats,  is  constructed  with  open  spaces  for 
ventilation,  meats  being  protected  from  vermin  hy  vnre  netting.  (Right)  The 
ends  of  thin  case,  containing  from  500  to  (iOO  pounds  of  ham,  arc  protected  by 
hickory  bands. 


Courtesy  of  Swift  d  Co. 


Crated  Lard  Tins. 


In   this   instance  advantage  of  crating   lies  in  reduction    of   duties  paid   on 
iross  tceight. 

047 


Courtesy  of  8.  D.  Warren  &  Co. 
Casing  op  Paper. 

Cases  made  of  %"  lumber  containing  500  pounds  of  paper.     Ends  of  cases 
are  cleated  on  both  sides. 


L  ^^H^^^^Hfl^^^^l 

Bf     t 

~  '^^■^■■l 

'-^ '^^;^^p^HBI 

t       * 

Courtesy  of  National  Paper  d  Type  Co. 
Method  of  Baling  Paper. 

Tops  and  bottoms  of  hales  are  of  solid  white  pine.     Waterproof  paper  and 
burlap  form  protective  covering. 

648 


PACKING  SUNDRY  COMMODITIES        649 

weights  of  the  packages  which  are  materially  reduced 
by  the  use  of  crates,  but  which  at  the  same  time  sup- 
ply a  substantial  package  for  shipping  purposes.  It 
might  at  first  glance  be  thought  that  a  good  many  of  the 
tins  would  be  damaged  because  their  sides  are  exposed 
through  the  crating,  yet  it  is  reported  by  this  company 
that  complaints  are  very  rare  indeed  and  that  even 
though  a  tin  may  occasionally  be  punctured  and  some  of 
the  contents  leak  out,  yet  the  company's  customers  figure 
that  the  net  saving  in  the  duties  through  the  use  of  these 
crates  justifies  the  risk  of  damage  in  transit  to  some  of 
the  tins  when  thus  shipped. 

Paper.— The  effect  of  the  war  on  the  export  of  paper 
is  clearly  revealed  in  the  government  reports  since  ex- 
ports of  paper  increased  from  $46,393,655  in  1917  to 
$54,170,134  in  1918,  and  $86,983,063  in  1919.  The  war 
operated  in  a  number  of  interesting  ways.  The  United 
States  was  practically  the  only  country  in  a  position  to 
do  a  world  business,  the  Webb  Bill  led  to  combinations 
in  trade  beyond  seas,  and  in  addition  we  had  a  great 
increase  in  the  intensity  of  the  merchandizing  drive  on 
the  part  of  individuals  and  concerns  doing  an  export 
business.  Undoubtedly,  also,  the  war  operated  favorably 
in  the  sense  of  inducing  paper  exporters,  both  jobbers 
and  mills,  to  give  serious  attention  to  the  requirements 
of  foreign  countries  with  reference  to  grades  and  sizes 
of  paper  that  differ  from  those  in  domestic  use,  and  also 
in  creating  a  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  mills  to  make 
runs  that  the  foreign  customer  requires. 

If  it  were  suitable  there  is  no  doubt  that  a  bale  would 
represent  the  ideal  package  for  paper.  There  would  be 
a  saving  in  measurements  and  consequently  freight,  the 
weight  would  be  less  and  ease  of  handling  would  be  great- 
ly facilitated.  Moreover,  the  danger  of  case  breakage  is 
eliminated  with  a  baled  package,  and  a  bale  will  stand  an 
amount  of  bad  handling  that  would  make  the  most  sturdy 
case  turn  faint.  However,  as  a  rule,  fine  papers  must  be 
cased,,  although  even  with  this  class  of  goods  European 
mills  do  more  baling  than  American  mills. 


650  EXPORT  PACKING 

A  house  whose  papers  are  well  known  in  many  foreign 
countries  sends  a  photograph  (see  cut,  page  648)  of  its 
standard  export  case  and  states  that:  *'A  standard  case 
to  carry  500  pounds  of  paper  is  made  up  from  %"  lumber. 
The  ends  of  the  cases  are  cleated  on  both  sides  giving  a 
double  nailing  surface.  There  is  a  waterproof  wrapper 
in  each  of  the  corners,  a  waterproof  lining  for  the  entire 
case,  and  inside  of  this  a  heavy  plain  lining  with  card- 
board in  the  bottom. 

**  After  the  case  is  filled  with  paper,  a  cardboard  is 
placed  on  top  and  the  wrapper  is  folded  in  so  that  when 
the  lid  is  nailed  down,  the  case  is  practically  waterproof. 

**  Steel  straps  are  placed  around  each  end  of  the  case 
and  steel  bands  around  the  body  of  the  case.  These  are 
tightly  drawn  and  fastened.  The  straps  around  the  body 
of  the  case  are  not  nailed  because  of  the  possibility  of 
injury  to  the  paper.  A  small  staple  is  used  to  prevent 
the  straps  from  rolling  up  when  being  handled. 

**  Export  bales  are  covered  with  heavy  waterproof 
paper,  sealed,  a  heavy  plain  wrapper  unsealed,  and  then 
burlap,  this  latter  sewed  at  the  sides  and  ends.  A  hard- 
wood board  with  four  wooden  strips  running  across  it, 
is  placed  at  the  top  and  bottoni  of  the  bale. 

**The  bale  is  prepared  on  the  bed  of  the  press  and 
after  being  wrapped  is  submitted  to  a  pressure  of  24 
tons  and  while  under  this  pressure  four  steel  bands  are 
drawn  on  and  fastened  with  steel  buckles.  The  bale  is 
then  taken  from  the  press  and  staples  are  put  over  the 
hooks  and  in  the  cleats  to  hold  everything  in  place.'' 

Another  house  doing  an  active  export  trade  in  paper 
sends  photographs  illustrating  baling  of  its  products, 
pages  648,  655,  656,  and  the  following  summary  of  the 
method  employed : 

The  photographs  represent  typical  bales  of  paper  and 
this  method  is  used  for  large  or  small  bales.  The  bales 
shown  in  the  photograph  were  prepared  for  muleback 
transportation  and  formed  part  of  a  shipment  to  Co- 
lombia. The  weight  in  this  case  was  approximately  200 
pounds  per  bale. 


PACKING  SUNDRY  COMMODITIES        651 

The  bales  are  made  up  with  solid  wood  tops  and  bot- 
toms, the  boards  being  new  %"  white  pine  and  the  cleats 
%"  material  of  the  same  wood.  The  first  protective 'cov- 
ering is  burlap  and  the  second  a  high  grade  waterproof 
paper.  The  bottom  of  the  bale  is  first  put  in  the  pres^, 
then  a  piece  of  burlap,  then  a  sheet  of  waterproof  paper, 
then  the  commercial  paper  that  is  being  shipped,  and  on 
top  the  same  materials  are  placed  as  those  on  the  bottom. 
This  is  shown  in  the  first  photograph. 

The  second  photograph  illustrates  how  the  metal 
bands  are  put  on  the  bale  after  pressure  has  been  applied, 
the  bands  being  fastened  with  a  special  non-slip  patent 
buckle.  The  use  of  the  buckle  obviates  the  necessity  of 
nailing. 

The  bales  are  then  taken  from  the  press,  the  water- 
proof paper  folded  in  and  the  burlap  tightly  sewed,  as 
shown  in  the  third  photograph.  The  fourth  photograph 
shows  a  number  of  completed  bales  ready  for  shipment. 

Shipments  of  roll  news  are  usually  sent  out  from  the 
United  States  uncrated  although  this  does  not  imply  that 
such  is  the  best  method.  On  page  656  is  shown  a  photo- 
graph of  roll  news  in  crates  from  an  American  mill. 
Commercially  this  is  too  expensive  a  package,  although 
rolls  crated  in  this  way  do  not  suffer  damage  from  steve- 
dores^ hooks,  from  cutting  by  cables,  from  bursting  by 
falling,  and  so  on,  and  certain  European  manufacturers 
have  devised  an  inexpensive  method  of  packing  roll  paper 
in  which  a  very  light  crate  is  used.  In  any  instance,  how- 
ever, the  question  is  whether  the  damage  to  the  uncrated 
rolls  is  greater  than  the  cost  of  crating. 

The  Writing  Paper  Manufacturers'  Association  gives 
the  following  instructions  for  baling  paper: 

*^In  shipments  to  overseas  countries  it  is  very  im- 
portant to  take  into  consideration  the  freights,  especially 
in  these  days  of  very  high  freight  rates. 

'*It  is  equally  important  that  proper  protection  be 
given  to  the  paper  in  the  way  of  packing,  which  will  pre- 
vent damage  to  the  goods  by  bad  handling  at  loading  and 
unloading  points. 


652  EXPORT  PACKING 

**In  some  countries,  particularly  on  the  West  Coast 
of  South  America,  where  the  cargo  is  usually  lightered 
from  the  steamer  to  the  pier,  sometimes  under  very  rough 
sea  conditions,  it  happens  that  packages  are  broken  open 
and  the  contents  very  seriously  damaged. 

**For  any  but  the  better  grades  of  paper  an  export 
bale  is  preferred  to  a  case  as  the  bale  reduces  consider- 
ably the  measurements,  therefore  reduces  the  marine 
freight,  yet  protects  the  paper  sufficiently,  especially  if 
the  regulation  bale  is  adopted  and  carefully  made. 

**In  some  countries  the  port  charges,  usually  very 
high,  are  assessed  on  the  gross  weight  of  the  shipping 
package,  thus  favoring  European  competition  where  bal- 
ing is  invariably  the  method  of  packing  adopted. 

**  While  hydraulic  baling  is  preferable  it  is  by  no 
means  imperative;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  a  better  bale  is 
often  made  as  a  jack  bale,  as  mentioned  below,  by  the 
ordinary  method  employed  in  some  mills,  than  where  a 
hydraulic  apparatus  is  used. 

**The  specifications  for  the  standard  export  bale  are 
as  follows :  Unless  otherwise  instructed,  reams  are  to  be 
placed  flat  in  bales.  At  rare  intervals,  sheets  are  required 
so  large  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  have  each  ream 
folded  once.  If  reams  are  folded  they  are  to  be  placed 
in  the  bale  with  folded  edges  alternating. 

**rf  order  calls  for  sheets  ream  wrapped,  each  ream 
is  taken  separately  and  entirely  wrapped  with  strong 
paper  and  sealed  with  sealing  wax  or  tape ;  gummed  tape 
is  preferred  because  it  leaves  no  impression  in  the  better 
papers  such  as  M.  F.,  S.  C,  Writings  and  Boards. 

*^For  each  bale  two  wooden  heads  are  provided. 
These  heads  are  preferably  constructed  as  follows :  Two 
layers  of  %"  lumber  nailed  together,  the  boards  in  the 
upper  layer  running  opposite  to  the  boards  of  the 
under  layer.  All  heads  are  one  quarter  inch  longer  and 
wider  than  the  size  of  sheets  to  be  baled.  (For  example : 
For  sheets  cut  24''  x40"  the  heads  should  measure  24%" 
x  401/4.")  The  practice  obtaining  in  some  mills  of  put- 
ting heavy  wooden  cleats  on  single  boards  at  the  top  and 


PACKING  SUNDRY  COMMODITIES        653 

bottom  should  be  substituted  by  the  above  method,  inas- 
much as  the  steamship  companies  measure  to  the  extreme 
dimensions  of  a  bale  and  charge  accordingly — a  half  inch 
addition  being  counted  as  a  whole,  and  in  a  shipment  of  a 
considerable  quantity  making  quite  a  difference  in  the 
freights  payable. 

''The  regulation  or  standard  bale  is  500  pounds  gross, 
although  bales  are  often  heavier  than  this.  Occasionally 
smaller  size  bales  are  specified  for  which  differentials 
should  be  charged  to  cover  the  additional  costs. 

''The  process  of  making  the  bale  as  a  jack  bale  is 
about  as  follows :  Place  on  a  truck  about  three  feet  high 
two  pieces  of  Ys"  band  iron,  lengthwise  of  the  sheet.  Then 
a  wooden  head  goes  on  above  the  band  iron.  Next  two 
sheets  of  heavy  screenings  or  strong  sulphite  paper  are 
laid  down,  same  being  of  sufficient  length  to  cover  one- 
half  of  the  bale.  A  mill  doing  a  great  deal  of  baling  has 
found  most  efficient  and  even  stronger  than  burlap,  which 
is  often  used  instead  of  paper,  what  is  known  as  'Bull 
Hide  Wrapper,'  of  a  weight  24"  x  36"— 230  pounds. 

"The  reams  are  then  piled  on  neatly  and  evenly; 
above  the  whole  a  duplicate  of  the  bottom  equipment  is 
placed — first  sulphite  wrappers  and  finally  a  wooden 
head.  Then  four  cross  strips  of  %;"  No.  22  band  iron  are 
laid  upon  the  wooden  head  and  the  pressure  is  applied  by 
jack,  where  this  is  used,  or  by  hydraulic  press  where 
available.  Hydraulic  bales  are  built  in  the  press.  When 
a  certain  pressure  is  reached,  with  the  degree  of  which 
the  finishers  will  soon  become  familiar,  the  jack  or  press 
is  stopped,  the  wrappers  are  neatly  folded  in  and  fast- 
ened strongly.  After  this  is  properly  done  the  cross 
strips  of  band  iron  (which  are  of  sufficient  length  to 
reach  around  the  bale  and  lap)  are  drawn  tight  and 
buckled  with  one. inch  buckles  or  seals  supplied  by  the 
Signode  Company;  the  bands  running  lengthwise  are 
then  tightened  and  buckled.  If  buckles  are  used  a  piece 
of  burlap  or  canvas  is  wound  around  the  bands  at  the 
buckles  to  form  a  protection  for  the  edges  of  the  paper ; 
then  pressure  is  relieved  and  the  bale  is  complete. 


654  EXPORT  PACKING 

**  Mills  not  equipped  with  hydraulic  presses  might  find 
it  advantageous  to  correspond  with  the  makers  of  inex- 
pensive instruments  used  for  tightening  the  iron  bands 
and  finishing  the  buckling.  Bulky  paper  can  be  baled  with 
this  system  without  a  baling  press  of  any  kind,  but  care 
should  be  taken  to  buy  the  instrument  for  %"  iron  bands 
(thickness  No.  22),  as  nothing  less  will  carry  safely  a 
standard  bale  of  500  pounds.  Some  mills  have  met  with 
failure  in  trying  this  system  with  %"  instruments.  A  set 
of  instruments  consisting  of  two  ratcheis  and  one  sealing 
device  formerly  cost  $30. 

*'For  the  more  expensive  grade  of  paper  it  may  be 
besf  to  add  burlaps  to  the  baling  press,  when  this  com- 
modity will  have  returned  to  a  more  normal  price.'* 

The  illustrations  shown  with  this  text  (see  page  661) 
are  published  by  the  association  for  the  purpose  of  show- 
ing baling  methods  recommended  in  the  above  bulletin. 

A  large  San  Francisco  firm  of  general  exporters  deal- 
ing chiefly  with  the  Orient,  calls  attention,  in  a  letter  de- 
voted particularly  to  exports  of  paper,  to  many  com- 
plaints received  from  its  customers  in  the  Far  East  which 
refer  to  the  practice  of  some  paper  makers  of  shipping  in 
packages  merely  wrapped  in  heavy  paper  and  bound  with 
light  rope;  in  consequence  of  which  practice  the  covers 
are  frequently  entirely  torn  away  by  the  time  the  ship- 
ment arrives  at  destination  and  the  identifying  mark  lost. 
In  shipments  of  paper  in  compressed  bales,  burlapped 
and  crated,  a  method  of  packing  considered  ideal  for  cer- 
tain papers,  consignees  in  the  Orient  have  found  that  the 
board  was  not  strong  enough  and  the  strap  too  light  to 
stand  rough  handling.  Complaint  has  also  been  made  of 
shipments  of  book  paper  in  cases  of  too  light  or  over- 
dried  lumber,  which  arrived  broken  with  resulting  fraying 
of  the  edges  of  the  sheets  of  the  paper,  all  of  which  had 
to  be  trimmed  before  they  could  be  used.  Customers  of 
this  export  house  insist  that  every  ream  of  book  or  other 
high-priced  paper  must  be  ream  wrapped,  and  that  more 
attention  be  paid  to  the  marking  in  order  that  identifica- 
tion at  destination  may  be  easy,  each  case  of  one  weight 


Courtesy  of  Knti. 


,    Illustrate,    nutnoa    of  ^ftT'^''  ""^  ^^™   ^^^«S- 
has  been  applied  ^    fasten- 


'■'■■''  rf  Ti/pe  Co. 


655 


Courtesy  of  "National  Paper  &  Type  Co. 
Bales  of  Paper  Ready  for  Shipment.    • 
These  hales  were  prepared  for  muleback  transportation  and  formed  part  of  a 
shipment  to  Colombia. 


Bolls  of  Newsprint  in  Crates. 
Rolls  crated  in  this  way  do  not  suffer  damage  from  handlinff, 

6.56 


PACKING  SUNDRY  COMMODITIES        657 

to  be  numbered  consecutively,  should  specifications  con- 
tain several  different  weights,  and  the  weight  sheet  to  be 
in  exact  accordance  with  both  net  and  gross  weights. 

A  large  New  York  export  house,  commenting  on  de- 
mands which  are  sometimes  made  on  American  manufac- 
turers for  the  casing  of  shipments  of  newsprint  and  other 
papers,  remarks  that  loss  in  shipping  the  American  way 
rarely  reaches  2  per  cent,  which  is  actually  less  than  the 
cost  of  boxing  would  amount  to.  Therefore,  it  is  be- 
lieved that  the  American  practice  is  preferable,  but  it 
is  pointed  out  that  pressure  ought,  if  possible,  to  be 
brought  to  bear  on  the  steamship  companies  to  reduce  the 
use  of  hooks  in  loading  on  board  vessel  at  American 
ports,  since  practically  all  the  damage  comes  from  the 
careless  and  indiscriminate  use  of  such  hooks. 

Specifications  for  packing  of  the  General  Engineer 
Depot  of  the  United  States  Army  include  the  following; 
*^  Roofing  paper  will  be  shipped  in  rolls,  wrapped  in  stout 
paper  well  gummed  down,  with  cloth  pasted  over  the  ends 
and  on  to  the  sides ;  or  equal  method.  Roofing  paper  in 
rolls  should  be  stacked  on  ends,  and  away  from  steam 
pipes." 

Leather. — With  an  increase  of  more  than  four  hundred 
per  cent  in  leather  exports  in  1919  as  compared  with  1918, 
the  exports  in  1919  amounting  to  $218,784,060,  the  United 
States  takes  its  place  in  the  front  rank  of  the  great 
leather  exporting  countries  of  the  world.  It  is  true  that 
a  continuation  of  this  immense  volume  of  business  is  not 
to  be  expected  as  conditions  become  normal,  but  none  the 
less  it  is  certain  that  a  considerable  portion  of  the  gain 
will  be  conserved. 

It  is  gratifying  to  note  that  manufacturers  of  all 
leather  products  have  been  keenly  mindful  of  the  neces- 
sity of  good  packing  and  well  considered  protection  for 
this  commodity.  Humidity,  oil,  abrasion,  and  a  number 
of  other  perils  must  be  guarded  against  in  overseas  ship- 
ments of  leather,  and  the  progressive  exporter  has  made 
every  effort  to  meet  the  various  requirements. 

A  photograph  shown  on  page  662  illustrates  pack- 


658  EXPORT  PACKING 

ing  of  high  grade  calf  skins.  The  letter  of  the  manufac- 
turer accompanying  the  photographs  reads  as  follows: 

**We  consider  the  item  of  packing  most  important  for 
the  American  exporters  competing  in  foreign  markets, 
and  we  are  therefore  gladly  giving  you  some  data  in  con- 
nection with  the  packing  of  our  products.  No  general 
rule  can  be  applied  for  packing,  inasmuch  as  the  packing 
should  be  made  adaptable  to  the  rules  prevailing  in  some 
countries,  this  being  very  important  to  avoid  payment  of 
overcharges  by  the  consignees. 

^*As  a  rule,  we  always  endeavor  to  do  our  packing  so 
as  to  facilitate  handling,  wrapping  our  leather  in  such  a 
way  as  to  have  the  goods  entirely  covered  with  gray  kraft 
paper  and  tied  with  tape.  These  bundles  are  in  turn 
packed  in  cases  made  of  high-grade  lumber,  so  that  they 
will  be  as  tight  as  a  wooden  case  can  be.  Before  the  goods 
are  placed  in  these  cases,  each  case  is  lined  with  water- 
proof paper,  the  leather  is  then  put  in  and  a  layer  of 
waterproof  paper  placed  on  the  top  and  the  covers  put 
on.  To  give  more  strength,  each  case  is  bound  on  either 
end  and  in  the  middle  with  %"  box  straps. 

**The  marking  of  the  cases  is  also  a  very  important 
item  and  should  receive  proper  attention  from  exporters. 
We  mark  each  case  in  two  places  with  outside  dimensions 
of  box,  namely,  length,  breadth  and  thickness,  and  with 
the  gross,  legal  and  net  weights,  together  with  initials  of 
the  consignee  and  the  port  of  destination.  We  sometimes 
add  the  route  by  which  the  package  is  sent  to  facilitate 
its  delivery." 

A  large  shipper  writes:  *' Patent  leather  is  japanned 
by  covering  with  enamel  and  baking  either  in  the  heat  of 
the  sun  or  in  an  oven.  Therefore,  it  is  very  susceptible 
to  heat  or  cold  and  must  be  very  carefully  packed  to  pre- 
vent sticking  or  cracking. 

**LeatheBi.is  sold  in  *  sides,'  which  are  just  what  the 
word  would  indicate — that  is,  the  hide  of  the  animal  is  cut 
down  the  back,  and  the  hide  from  each  side  constitutes  a 
*side'  of  leather.  A  side  of  cow  leather  measures  about 
18  square  feet. 


PACKING  SUNDRY  COMMODITIES         659 

*^In  preparing  for  packing,  the  sides  are  folded  over  a 
square  frame  made  of  two  parallel  strips  of  wood  joined 
by  two  parallel  strips  of  cardboard.  Upon  this  frame  a 
half  dozen  or  sometimes  a  dozen  sides  are  folded  over 
each  other  in  three  folds,  forming  a  bundle  that  is  ap- 
proximately square.  The  sides  are  laid  on  top  of  one 
another  in  pairs,  with  the  finished  or  hair  surfaces  toward 
each  other,  and  between  each  side  of  a  pair  as  well  as 
between  the  pairs  there  is  a  layer  of  cotton  felt. 

*'The  sides  are  wrapped  with  wrapping  paper,  or,  in 
shipment  to  most  ports,  with  waterproof  paper,  and  they 
are  packed  in  a  flat  wooden  case  made  to  measure.  The 
cases  are  usually  iron  strapped,  the  straps  being  nailed  to 
the  case.  If  ordered,  additional  protection  from  moisture 
and  from  thieves  is  provided  by  lining  the  case  with  tin, 
the  top  of  the  tin  inner  case  boing  soldered  on;  sometimes 
an  inner  case  of  wood,  instead  of  tin  is  used.  Especially 
heavy  leathers — not  patent — are  sometimes  packed  in 
bales  instead  of  cases,  and  chicken  wire  is  wrapped 
around  the  bales  to  prevent  theft.'' 

Another  large  manufacturer  of  patent  leather  states : 
**One  dozen  sides  of  patent  leather  are  packed  to  a 
bundle,  the  finished  sides  being  face  to  face.  Cotton  wad- 
ding is  placed  between  these  sides.  Bundles  are  folded 
in  four  folds  by  folding  first  through  the  middle  then 
folding  in  half  again.  On  the  outside  of  each  bundle,  a 
tally  of  the  foot  measurement  with  the  grade  and  weight 
is  pasted,  as  well  as  a  label :  '  Do  not  handle  until  thor- 
oughly warm.' 

**  Leather  is  then  ready  for  casing.  The  bundles  are 
tiered,  or  piled,  one  on  top  of  the  other  as  evenly  as  pos- 
sible, and  an  actual  measurement  is  taken  so  that  the 
goods  may  fit  the  case  snugly  to  prevent  them  from  shift- 
ing. Goods  are  packed,  as  a  rule,  about  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  dozen  to  a  case  measuring  from  ten  to  fifteen  cubic 
feet.  Larger  goods,  hides  of  about  eighteen  to  nineteen 
square  feet,  are  packed  about  fifteen  to  twenty  dozen  to  a 
case.  These  cases  are  lined  with  waterproof  paper  to 
prevent  as  much  moisture  as  possible  from  getting  to  the 


660  EXPORT  PACKING 

goods.  As  these  cases  are  faily  large,  averaging  about 
three  hundred  to  five  hundred  pounds,  it  is  advisable  that 
%"  stock  be  used,  with  iron  straps  and  cleats  as  well  as 
nails,  so  that  they  may  be  safe  and  secure  in  transit. 

** Patent  kid  is  packed  the  same  as  the  sides  as  far  as 
the  cotton  wadding  is  concerned,  but  there  are  two  dozen 
skins  to  a  bundle,  and  they  are  not  folded  but  are  laid 
flat.  About  twenty-five  to  thirty  dozen  skins  are  packed 
in  a  case.  The  cases  being  much  smaller  and  lighter  in 
weight,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  use  such  heavy  stock 
as  for  side  leathers;  in  these  cases,  %"  stock  is  used. 

**When  packed,  the  cases  are  stenciled  as  to  mark 
(representing  name  and  address),  number,  gross  and  net 
weights,  as  well  as  measurements.  All  cases  containing 
leather  should  also  be  stenciled:  **Keep  dry  and  do  not 
store  next  to  any  boilers.'  It  is  preferable  to  have  such 
indications  appear  not  only  in  English  but  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  country  to  which  shipped.'' 

It  may  be  pointed  out  that  considerable  discretion 
must  be  used  by  shippers  of  patent  leather  in  the  choice 
of  material  with  which  to  separate  the  japanned  sides  of 
the  different  skins.  Tissue  paper  sometimes  used  for 
this  purpose,  often,  when  shipped  through  hot  waters  or 
across  the  equator,  adheres  to  the  enamel  and  results  in 
loss  of  as  high  as  60  per  cent  of  the  shipment.  Further- 
more, leather  ought  not  to  be  shipped  in  uncased  bundles 
when  it  is  possible  to  avoid  so  doing.  Certainly  such 
bundles  ought  never  to  be  protected  merely  by  paper 
which  is  almost  certain  to  be  destroyed  in  the  course  of 
shipment  with  loss  of  the  identifying  marks.  There  must 
be  adequate  protection  by  waterproofing  materials  as 
well  as  paper  linings,  strong  outside  burlap  wrappings 
and  every  insurance  against  damage  from  hooks. 

Leather  Belting.— American  leather  belting  has  made 
an  excellent  place  for  itself  in  export  trade,  and  no  small 
part  of  this  success  has  been  due  to  the  care  with  which 
the  goods  are  packed .  There  are  a  number  of  interesting 
angles  in  belting  packing,  although  the  main  point  is 
adequate  protection  against  humidity.     In  the  photo- 


Courtesy  of  Writing  Paper  Manufacturers'  Ass'n 

Method  of  Baling  Sheet  Paper. 

For  full  description  see  text. 


BALED    rOR    EXPORT 


^ 


^ 


Bale 
Gross 
Tare 
Net 


No.  12 
570 

so 

520 


13  RMS. 


i 
26  X  40 


40/500 


Courtesy  of  Writing  Paper  Manufacturers'  Ass'n 
Baling  of  Paper  for  Export. 
Note  method  of  handing  and  marking. 

661 


Courtesij  of  Barnet  Leather  Co.,  Inc. 
TACKING  OF  Calf  Skins. 
Leather  bundles  wrapped  in   kraft  paper  and  tied  with  tapes  are  placed  in 
case.     Note  that  case  is  lined  with  waterproof  paper. 


Courtesy  of  Chas.  A.  Schieren  t'o. 
Packing  of  Leather  Belting. 
Procena  of  haling;  belting  is  first  wrapped  in  rubber  cloth. 
662 


PACKING  SUNDRY  COMMODITIES         663 

graphs  annexed  to  this  chapter  stress  has  been  laid  on 
the  waterproof  coverings  provided  for  the  belting,  and 
this  point  must  be  most  carefully  considered.  Strength 
of  package  is  also  of  great  importance,  as  the  contents  of 
this  class  of  shipment  are  not  only  of  considerable  value 
but  the  weight  of  the  case  is  fairly  great. 

A  well-known  manufacturing  company  submits  a 
statement  relative  to  its  export  practice,  to  be  consid- 
ered in  connection  with  photographs  reproduced  on  pages 
662  and  667,  which  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

Leather  belting  is  put  up  in  rolls  packed  in  burlap 
with  rubber  cloth,  the  waterproofing  material  being  on 
the  inside  next  to  the  belting.  The  burlap  used  is  of 
heavy  texture,  10  ounces,  40  inches  wide,  the  bales  of  the 
belting  weighing  from  600  to  700  pounds,  usually  in  rolls 
of  about  100  meters  length  (328  feet).  Five  or  six  rolls 
securely  fastened  together  so  that  they  will  not  rub  or 
the  ends  become  loose  while  in  transit  are  placed  in  suit- 
able, strong  and  heavy  wooden  cases,  usually  of  1^4" 
stock,  securely  strapped  with  band  iron.  The  rolls  are 
usually  tied  with  heavy  rope  and  the  waterproof  cloth  and 
burlap  sewed  securely  with  30-ply  Osprey  sewing  twine. 
Details  of  the  methods  adopted  by  this  concern  in  its 
export  packing  will  be  observed  from  the  photographs 
to  which  reference  is  made. 

Packing  of  Automobile  Tires.— The  value  of  the  ex- 
ports of  automobile  tires  (hiring  the  fiscal  year  1919  was 
over  six  times  that  of  1914,  and  in  the  case  of  a  number 
of  countries  as  much  money  was  spent  in  the  United 
States  for  tires  as  these  same  countries  spent  for  auto- 
mobiles. For  example,  Argentina  gave  us  82  cents  in 
orders  for  tires  for  every  dollar  spent  for  American 
automobiles,  and  for  every  commercial  or  passenger  car 
sent  to  the  Argentine  approximately  $1,080  was  spent  for 
tires.  Another  interesting  fact  about  the  Argentine  ex- 
port trade  is  that  orders  for  American  tires  during  1919 
were  83  times  as  large  as  the  orders  from  the  same  coun- 
try during  1914.  The  value  of  our  exports  to  Brazil  in 
1919  was  56  times  that  of  1914,  the  exports  to  Chile  ran 


664  EXPORT  PACKING 

up  to  106  times  the  value  of  those  of  1914,  and  for  every 
dollar  spent  by  Chile  for  American  automobiles  during 
the  past  year  approximately  79  cents  were  spent  for  tires. 
The  value  of  our  exports  of  tires  to  the  Dutch  East 
Indies  in  1919  was  303  times  that  of  the  1914  value,  and 
for  every  automobile  we  sold  to  this  section  of  the  world 
we  sold  $304  worth  of  tires.  In  the  case  of  British  India 
the  value  of  tire  exports  was  131  times  that  of  1914. 

These  figures  might  be  continued,  but  the  showing 
would  merely  amount  to  the  same  thing,  and  the  net  proof 
would  be  that  the  export  business  for  the  tire  manufac- 
turer is  to-day  decidedly  worth  while  and  that  the  Ameri- 
can tire  in  the  language  of  a  well-known  manufacturer  is 
a  **good  tire.''  It  is  possible  that  under  normal  com- 
petition these  percentages  will  not  be  maintained,  but  the 
great  tire  factories  of  the  United  States  are  going  after 
world  business  in  a  determined  way  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  volume  of  exports  in  American  tires  will  con- 
tinue to  be  large.  In  their  work  the  tire  companies  are 
carrying  the  fight  into  the  customer's  own  country,  as 
even  a  cursory  glance  through  foreign  publications  with 
their  large  space  advertisements  of  American  tire  fac- 
tories will  show. 

An  automobile  tire  is  a  very  valuable  product  and  the 
manufacturers  are  making  a  careful  study  of  the  export 
,  situation  and  are  producing  a  good  package.  The  pro- 
tection from  humidity  is  adequate,  and  the  opportunity 
presented  for  filling  the  case  to  its  maximum  is  intelli- 
gently taken  advantage  of. 

Attention  has  been  called  during  the  course  of  this  dis- 
cussion of  export  packing,  to  the  advisability  of  filling  up 
open  spaces  with  small  packaged  goods,  and  in  the  case 
of  the  automobile  tire  a  splendid  opportunity  is  offered 
to  fill  the  ^*hole  in  the  doughnut."  The  company,  to 
whose  courtesy  the  author  is  indebted  for  the  photo- 
graphs in  this  chapter  (see  cuts  pages  668  and  673) 
packs  the  **hole"  snugly  with  the  inner  tube  boxes,  a 
practice  that  is  fairly  general. 

The  manager  of  the  shipping  department  of  a  house 


PACKING  SUNDRY  COMMODITIES        665 

doing  one  of  the  largest  international  trades  in  a  varied 
line  of  rubber  goods,  says  as  to  his  packing  methods  that 
there  is  no  seal  affixed  to  the  cases  and  the  only  means 
used  to  prevent  pilfering  is  the  nailed  strapping.  All 
identification  marks  are  kept  from  cases.  Attention  was 
called  to  the  fact  that  in  the  case  of  this  organization  a 
nailless  strapping  was  used  for  a  short  time,  but  it  was 
found  that  it  would  not  stay  on  the  cases.  Consequently  a 
return  was  immediately  made  to  the  nailed  strap. 

This  company  makes  a  very  large  variety  of  goods 
and  the  packing  is  not  standardized  except  for  a  few 
items.  The  goods  as  a  rule  are  packed  in  accordance  with 
customers^  specifications  and  customs  requirements.  In 
shipping  to  Great  Britain  no  straps  are  affixed  to  the 
cases,  but  shipments  are  confined  to  one  or  two  of  the 
largest  steamship  lines  which  give  particular  attention 
to  the  proper  handling  of  freight. 

It  is  commonly  believed  that  a  method  of  reducing 
the  space  occupied  by  a  package  consists  in  putting  the 
cleats  or  battens  on  the  inside  of  the  case.  The  concern 
under  discussion,  however,  states  that  it  tried  this  method 
but  found  that  the  support  given  the  cases  was  not  as 
satisfactory  as  when  the  cleat  or  batten  was  on  the  out- 
side. 

This  company  is  constantly  experimenting  with  two- 
way  shipments,  or  shipments  sent  out  to  be  returned  in 
the  original  cases  in  order  to  check  results  of  the  packing 
method,  and  very  close  touch  is  kept  with  its  different 
foreign  branches  so  that  the  success  or  failure  of  the 
various  packings  may  be  determined.  In  addition  to  fol- 
lowing the  instructions  of  customers,  or  the  requirements 
of  local  customs  regulations,  a  great  deal  of  the  packing 
is  done  along  lines  advised  by  the  different  branches  over- 
seas. 

There  is  a  further  thought  that  operates  in  the  work 
ol  this  company.  It  has  been  found  that  in  many  coun- 
tries it  is  possible  to  sell  cases  for  two  or  three  times 
their  original  cost.  This  factor  reduces  quite  materially 
the  cost  of  packing,  and  also  makes  possible  a  more  ex- 


666  EXPORT  PACKING 

pensive  package  than  might  otherwise  be  used.  It  also 
explains  the  preference  of  the  company  for  cases  rather 
than  bales. 

Another  large  shipper  states:  **The  question  of  ex- 
port packing  is  a  pretty  large  one  and  must  be  dealt 
with  individually,  no  fixed  rule  being  applicable  to  all 
commodities. 

**  Buyers  in  some  countries  require  goods  shipped  in 
cases,  while  others  require  them  shipped  in  bundles. 
Some  goods  are  dutiable  on  gross  weight,  some  freight 
rates  are  charged  on  cubical  contents  of  cases,  while 
duties  on  others  are  assessed  on  the  net  weights. 

**It  is  therefore  necessary  for  any  manufacturer  to 
know  the  laws  pertaining  to  a  particular  shipment  that 
he  desires  to  make,  and  it  is  then  up  to  the  manufacturer 
to  arrange  his  packing  in  the  most  advantageous  way  for 
his  customer. 

'*As  regards  automobile  tires  and  tubes,  we  ship  them 
both  in  bales  and  in  boxes.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in 
each  instance  to  guarantee  safety  in  delivery,  to  avoid 
damage,  to  insure  against  pilferage  and  injurv  which 
may  be  sustained  by  the  use  of  grappling  hooks,  draw 
hooks,  etc. 

**In  arranging  for  our  shipments  in  cases,  we  number 
our  cases,  say,  from  one  to  six.  Each  case  has  itg  par- 
ticular cubical  contents  and  will  receive  a  certain  number 
of  certain  sizes  of  tires,  themselves  nested  in  the  case, 
and  in  the  open  parts  we  pack  tubes,  and  on  either  side 
of  the  tires  a  certain  proportion  of  advertising  material, 
so  that  when  the  case  is  complete  it  is  practically  a  solid 
mass,  securely  nailed  and  strapped  with  steel  strapping 
around  each  edge,  properly  marked,  after  having  all  been 
placed  in  a  so-called  waterproof  paper  package. 

*' All  our  boxes  are  marked  by  specially  cut  type.  .  We 
do  not  rely  upon  hand  marks.  We  mark  our  boxes  on  all 
four  sides  and  in  some  cases  both  ends,  so  that  they  are 
easily  distinguishable  in  a  large  lot  of  boxes  ready  to  go 
on  or  off  ship  or  remain  stored  in  a  warehouse. 

**Our  weights  are  always  given  in  both  standard  and 


Courtesy  of  Chas.  A.  Schieren  Oo, 
Leather  Belting  Tied  Prior  to  Baling. 

Beltinff  tied  to  prevent  rubbing  and  loosening  of  ends.     Note  method  of  pro- 
tecting belting  against  rubbing  of  cord. 


Courtesy  of  Chas..  A.  Schieren  Co. 

Packing  of  Leather  Belting. 

(Left)   Belting  is  wrapped  in  waterproof  cloth  and  burlap,  it  is  aeum  with 
SO  ply  Ofiprey  twine.     (Right)   Cases  contain  baled  rolls  of  leather  belting. 

667 


Courtesy  of  Miller  Rubber  Co. 
:pACKiNG  OF  Automobile  Tires. 

Shows  method  of  nesting  tires  in  case  ^2  x  Jio  x  32".     Note  waterproof  paper 
lining.     Lid  is  pressed  down,  thus  economizing  space. 


Vourte8V  of  Miller  Rubber  Co. 
Casing  op  Automobile  Tires. 

Another  method  of  packing  tires.     In  this  instance  tires  are  too  large  to  be 
nested  as  shoum  in  previous  illustration. 


PACKING  SUNDRY  COMMODITIES        669 

kilo  weights,  and  our  marking  is  necessarily  very  clear. 
Our  boxes  are  all  made  of  y^"  surfaced  on  one  side  ma- 
terial with  a  reenforcement  in  each  corner,  securely 
nailed  with  cement-coated  nails.'' 

Bath  Tubs  and  Sanitary  Ware.— The  following  is  an 
excerpt  from  a  letter  received  from  a  prominent  manufac- 
turer of  sanitary  installations  who  does  a  large  export 
business:  *^ Packing  as  related  to  export  shipments  is  one 
of  the  most  important  steps  in  building  up  a  permanent 
and  lasting  export  trade.  It  is  the  finishing  touch  of  the 
manufacturer's  effort  to  supply  our  foreign  trade  with 
his  product,  and  for  this  reason  should  have  the  most 
careful  attention  of  any  operation  in  the  process  of  manu- 
facture and  completion  of  the  order. 

**  Aside  from  this  viewpoint,  it  must  be  considered 
that  an  export  shipment  receives  exceptionally  rough 
handling,  is  subject  to  various  climatic  conditions,  dif- 
ferent methods  of  handling  and  transhipment  at  times. 
The  manufacturer  who  tries  to  use  the  same  packing  for 
export  as  domestic  business  is  making  a  grave  mistake 
and  adding  to  the  bad  reputation  which  the  careless 
American  exporter  has  acquired  abroad. 

'*Our  products,  sanitary  bathroom  and  plumbing  fix- 
tures, are  carefully  crated  in  open  slat  crates  but  with 
the  slats  not  more  than  11/2"  or  2"  apart.  The  lumber 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  crates  is  heavy  %"  stock, 
and  the  greatest  care  is  taken  when  the  ware  is  packed 
in  the  crates  that  it  will  take  up  the  least  possible  space 
and  yet  stand  the  unusually  rough  handling  to  which  ex- 
port shipments  are  subject.  Packing  is  as  much  a  trade 
as  carpentry,  and  no  definite  instruction  can  be  given,  as 
circumstances  and  article  to  be  shipped  alter  the  case. 
However,  it  is  advisable  to  put  the  best  packers  in  an 
organization  on  export  shipments.  All  crates  should  be 
iron  strapped  with  at  least  a  %"  tough  band  strapping, 
and  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  special  instrument  to  draw 
these  bands  tightly  around  the  crate. 

**The  subject  of  marking  crates  for  export  shipment 
is  an  important  one.    Marks  should  always  be  stenciled 


670  EXPORT  PAVKING 

.plainly — never  put  on  'free  hand'  with  a  marking  brush, 
and  a  waterproof  ink  must  be  used.  Each  package  should 
contain  the  customer's  name  or  initials,  port  of  entry, 
serial  number  on  each  crate  as  a  rule,  measurements  in 
inches  and  net  and  gross  weights  in  kilos  if  to  a  Latin 
country.  If  the  destination  is  an  inland  point,  both  the 
inland  city  and  the  port  of  entry  should  be  marked  on 
the  packages,  as,  for  example,  Paris  via  Le  Havre,  or 
Camaguey  via  Santiago.  It  is  difficult  to  give  definite  in- 
structions which  will  hold  good  on  all  shipments,  but  the 
above  will  give  a  general  impression  of  the  ordinary  ex- 
port shipment,  and  the  improvement  of  each  particular 
case  is  up  to  the  individuals  concerned.'* 

Another  exporter  of  bath  tubs  and  plumbers'  supplies 
states:  *'Bath  tubs  we  nest  three  to  six  in  a  crate 
strongly  reenforced  and  bound  with  wrought  iron  bands. 
Miscellaneous  fixtures,  supplies  and  plumbers'  brass 
goods  we  pack  in  barrels  with  reenforced  heads. 

**We  use  great  care  in  packing  enamel  ware  and  this 
class  of  material,  and  the  few  complaints  we  have  re- 
ceived convince  us  our  policy  as  regards  packing  for  ex- 
port is  well  worth  the  care  we  exercise." 

A  third  manufacturer  writes:  **A11  roll  rim  bath 
tubs  can  be  nested  with  as  many  as  six  tubs  to  one  crate. 

**A11  of  our  enamel  iron  lavatories  with  the  exception 
of  those  having  pedestals  and  legs  can  be  packed  two  to 
a  crate.  In  some  instances  where  a  number  of  these 
lavatories  are  ordered,  we  pack  several  legs  in  one  crate. 
Regarding  our  vitreous  china  lavatories,  the  same  pack- 
ing is  advised. 

'*Our  roll  rim  slop  and  kitchen  sinks  are  crated  two 
to  a  crate,  but  the  flat  rim  kitchen  sinks  can  be  nested  six 
to  a  crate. 

**A11  plain  bowls  for  closet  combinations  are  packed 
two  to  a  crate,  the  tanks  for  each  low  type  combina- 
tion being  packed  separately;  the  supply  pipes  and 
other  brass  fittings  are  packed  together  in  one  box, 
with  the  seats  for  all  combinations  packed  together 
in    another    box.      These    boxes    are    securely    packed 


PACKING  SUNDRY  COMMODITIES         671 

and  closed  so  that  none  of  the  fittings  can  slip   out. 

**Our  flat  back,  sanex  and  roll  rim  urinals  can  be 
nested  two  in  a  crate  in  a  very  small  cubic  space. 

*^We  would  state  that  our  ware  is  packed  in  open 
crates  for  export  shipment,  as  we  have  experimented 
with  the  open  and  closed  cases  and  have  found  that  less 
damage  occurs  in  using  the  former  method,  the  steamship 
people  can  see  the  contents  and  greater  care  is  taken  in 
handling  shipments.'' 

Yet  another  large  shipper  writes:  **It  is  customary 
for  us  to  box  all  material  for  export  with  the  exception  of 
competition  style  baths,  which  we  crate.  Our  boxes  con- 
sist of  lumber  of  %"  thickness  at  top  and  bottom,  and 
%"  thickness  on  the  sides.  The  fixtures  are  braced  inside 
to  prevent  their  rocking.  These  braces  vary  in  number, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  fixture ;  they  are  made  of  V 
lumber.  Between  the  fixtures  themselves  and  the  wooden 
packing  we  use  excelsior  pads;  these  pads  also  vary  in 
size ;  they  average  in  their  original  state  about  2"  thick. 
Our  packages  are  then  strapped  with  iron  bands. 

**Our  crates  are  built  on  more  or  less  the  same  prin- 
ciple— the  same  thickness  of  lumber  as  mentioned,  and 
with  the  use  of  braces  and  excelsior  pads  inside,  and  on 
some  styles  of  bath  tubs  we  also  use  additional  felt  pads 
to  protect  the  rims.  This  latter  additional  packing  is 
particularly  used  on  baths  which  are  nested,  that  is  to 
say,  which  are  packed  two  or  more  in  a  crate.  In  these 
nests  the  weight  of  each  bath  is  carried  on  a  skeleton 
frame  so  that  each  fixture  rides  independently  of  the 
other,  and  the  total  weight  of  the  contents  of  the  crate  is 
carried  by  the  exterior  packing. '* 

It  should  be  noted  in  the  shipment  of  bath  tubs  and 
sanitary  ware  that  no  little  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  customs  regulations  of  the  country  of  destination.  It 
is  almost  always  preferable  that  all  nickel  fittings,  fau- 
cets, etc.,  be  packed  separately  from  the  porcelain  or 
cast  iron  fixtures,  and  properly  and  separately  declared 
in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  the  country  of  destination. 

Oil  Cloth.— A  well-known  exporter  of  oil  cloth  states: 


672  EXPORT  PACKING 

<'The  method  of  packing  oil  cloth  depends  largely  upon 
the  quality  of  goods  shipped,  but  all  kinds  are  prepared 
for  packing  in  the  same  way,  that  is,  the  cloth,  which  is 
about  fifty  inches  wide,  is  wrapped  around  a  wooden  pole 
or  dowel,  forming  a  close  roll. 

**The  rolls  are  usually  packed  beside  and  on  top  of 
each  other  in  wooden  cases.  The  cases  are  not  lined, 
unless  especially  requested  by  the  customer,  in  which  case 
the  extra  protection  is  paid  for  by  him.  Two  kinds  of 
cases  are  used :  light  cases  for  shipping  to  ports  near  at 
hand;  heavy  cases  for  shipping  to  more  distant  ports. 
The  light  cases  are  built  usually  of  13/16"  lumber.  The 
ends,  or  heads,  are  reenforced  with  two  cleats  three  inches 
wide  and  16/16"  thick,  one  at  either  side  of  the  head  and 
flush  with  the  sides  of  the  case.  Wire  straps,  %"  wide, 
are  nailed  to  the  case  close  to  the  head,  so  that  the  nail 
drives  through  into  the  head  as  well  as  into  the  top  of 
the  case.  Heavy  cases  are  still  more  strongly  reenforced. 
Four  cleats  instead  of  two  are  used,  forming  a  square 
of  cleats  all  around  the  head ;  sometimes  these  cleats  are 
square  cornered,  sometimes  mitered.  Also,  two  sets  of 
battens  are  nailed  around  the  case,  one  about  a  third  of 
the  way  from  each  end.  Wire  straps  are  nailed  to  the 
battens. 

**Eolls  of  goods  of  especially  high  finish,  such  as  the 
smooth  black  or  colored  glazes,  are  prevented  from 
scratching  in  the  following  -manner :  the  inside  of  the 
case  is  recessed  by  nailing  a  strip  of  wood  to  each  end, 
laying  the  ends  of  the  poles  upon  it  and  then  nailing  an- 
other strip  of  wood  just  above  the  ends  of  the  poles.  If 
the  size  of  the  order  is  such  that  there  must  be  more  than 
one  layer  of  rolls  in  the  case,  then  another  recess  is  built 
a  few  inches  above  the  first.  To  prevent  rolls  in  the  same 
layer  from  pressing  too  closely  upon  one  another,  each 
pole  has  its  own  individual  recess,  the  strips  of  wood 
being  hollowed  out  in  opposite  semi-circular  grooves 
forming  a  separate  circular  groove  for  the  end  of  each 
pole." 

Bicycles.— According  to   a  prominent  international 


(  niirtisif  of  Miller  Rubber  Co. 
Packing  op  Innek  Tubes. 

To  economize  on  space,  boxes  containing  inner  tubes  are  placed  in  centre  of 
tires. 


Courtesy  of  Robt.  H.  Ingersoll  d  Bra. 


Packing  of  Watches. 

Each  watch  carefully  wrapped  is  placed  in  box;  individual  boxes  are  placed  in 
cartons  of  twelve  each.  Note  that  at  least  one  inch  is  left  on  all  sides  of  case 
for  paper  packing. 


673 


Vourtcsy   of  Parijic  >Scniitari/  Mf(j.   Co. 

Crating  of  Bath  Tubs. 
As  many  as  six  roll  rim  bath  tubs  can  be  nested  in  one  crate. 


Courtesy  of  Thomas  Maddock's  /Sows  Co. 
Sanitary  Ware  Packed  for  Shipment. 
Carefully  crated  in  open  slat  crate,  slats  are  not  more  than  IVa"  or  2"  apart. 


674 


PACKING  SUNDRY  COMMODITIES         675 

shipper,  ^4here  are  two  methods  of  exporting  bicycles. 
Some  distributors  strip  the  frames  entirely,  shipping  the 
bicycle  frames  in  crates  and  all  equipment  in  cases.  We 
do  not  advocate  that  plan  ourselves,  believing  that  it  costs 
more  for  ocean  space  when  the  wheels  of  the  bicycles  are 
boxed  together  with  the  accessories. 

^*  We  have  found  almost  universal  satisfaction  in  ship- 
ping our  bicycles  in  crates,  one  machine  to  a  crate  and 
then  we  fasten  four  crates  together,  putting  extra  straps 
of  tough  wood  around  the  four  crates,  supported  with 
steel  strapping.  We  strip  the  bicycles  before  crating 
them  in  the  following  way:  The  handle  bars,  pedals, 
saddles  and  stems  are  removed.  These  are  packed  and 
shipped  as  accessories  in  a  separate  box.  The  bicycle 
stands  in  the  crate  upon  the  rubber  tires  which  are  in- 
flated. The  enamel  frames  are  carefully  wrapped  accord- 
ing to  the  spiral  method  with  tough  paper.  This  paper 
must  not  be  too  stiff  but  must  conform  closely  to  the  part 
wrapped.  All  bright  parts  of  the  bicycle  should  be 
heavily  vaselined  to  prevent  rusting  or  corrosion  by  sea 
fog  and  moisture. 

*' Bicycles  shipped  in  that  way  take  up  the  minimum 
space.  They  are  easily  handled,  as  four  machines  crated 
together  will  not  make  a  package  of  a  total  gross  weight 
of  over  300  pounds.  The  crates  are  so  made  that  the 
wood  strips  of  which  they  are  composed  afford  adequate 
protection  to  the  machines  or  contents. 

*^In  some  instances,  where  we  know  the  machines  are 
going  a  long  distance,  for  instance,  to  India  and  then  up 
country,  we  have  removed  the  rubber  tires  from  the 
bicycles  and  shipped  them  in  separate  case.  We  do  not 
regard  this  as  a  necessity,  ordinarily,  unless  there  may 
be  a  possibility  of  a  long  exposure  of  the  rubber  to  arti- 
ficial heat  in  the  steamer  or  a  trip  overland,  as  standing  in 
the  sun  will  affect  the  rubber. ' ' 

Watches.— Among  the  products  of  the  American  fac- 
tory that  have  won  an  enviable  place  for  themselves  in 
the  trade  of  the  world  the  story  of  the  watch  offers  a 
great  deal  that  is  significant  and  informative.    The  mer- 


676  EXPORT  PACKING 

chandising  methods  of  the  American  watch  manufacturer 
are  not  alone  novel  and  aggressive  but  they  are  based  on 
quality  goods  and  the  argument  is  a  quality  argument. 

The  export  development  has  brought  with  it  close 
attention  to  the  requirements  of  a  good  export  package, 
and  the  success  attained  proves  that  the  problem  has 
been  practically  solved.  The  author  can  remember  being 
shown,  several  years  ago  in  Europe,  an  export  package 
of  American  watches,  and  the  French  jeweler  who  dis- 
played them  stated  that  it  was  the  most  satisfactory 
export  packing  method  with  which  he  was  acquainted. 

Since  this  time  great  improvement  has  been  made,  to 
such  an  extent  that  last  year  one  American  watch  com- 
pany shipped  9,000  packages  of  various  types  and  styles 
abroad  and  the  complaints  for  **ill  packing  could  easily 
be  counted  on  one  hand  and  our  claim  losses  for  theft, 
etc.,  as  far  as  the  writer  can  understand,  were  less  than 
five.'' 

In  connection  with  shipments  of  watches  reference 
should  be  made  to  the  special  chapter  on  parcel  post 
shipments  as  well  as  observations  elsewhere  in  this  vol- 
ume relating  to  the  protection  of  all  shipments  against 
pilfering. 

With  reference  to  export  packing  of  watches  a  well- 
known  house  sends  us  photographs  (see  page  673)  and 
states:  **Our  watches  are  placed  first  in  individual 
boxes,  either  so  wrapped  with  tissue  paper  that  there 
is  no  play  in  the  box  or  lying  in  a  nest  in  the  box  which 
prevents  the  watch  banging  against  the  side  of  the  box. 
The  individual  boxes  are  then  placed  in  cartons  holding 
twelve  each  and  packing  is  placed  between  the  sides  of 
the  individual  boxes  and  the  side  of  the  carton  which 
cuts  down  the  play  to  a  minimum. 

'*If  the  shipment  is  to  go  by  freight,  the  watches  are 
packed  in  a  heavy  wooden  case,  which  is  first  lined  with  a 
tar-lined  paper  bag.  At  least  one  inch  space  is  left  at  all 
sides  of  the  case  for  packing.  After  the  case  is  nailed, 
wire  strapping  is  put  around  the  center  and  ends.  Tin- 
lined  cases  are  furnished  at  cost,  if  desired.'' 


PACKING  SUNDRY  COMMODITIES         677 

Describing  its  export  packing  methods,  another  com- 
pany doing  a  very  large  international  business  writes 
as  follows:  '*We  never  use  second-hand  cases,  all 
cases  being  constructed  to  fit  the  merchandise  shipped 
rather  than  trying  to  make  the  merchandise  fit  into  what- 
ever cases  we  happen  to  have.  This,  of  course,  means 
extra  expense,  but  when  you  figure  that  a  customer 
wishes  his  merchandise  delivered  to  him  in  proper  con- 
dition and  does  not  look  for  broken  or  damaged  material, 
the  slight  extra  cost  in  packing  is  more  than  compensated 
for  by  a  satisfied  client. 

* '  Our  heavier  material,  such  as  clocks  and  automobile 
parts,  are  packed  in  y^"  pine  stock  cleated  at  each  end 
and  set  in  tin  lined,  hermetically  sealed  cases,  the  outside 
of  the  case  being  nailed  with  from  seven  to  nine  nails  and 
the  case  strapped  with  iron  strapping  at  each  end  and 
around  the  middle.  These  cases  are  strapped  in  such  a 
way  that  should  they  drop  on  any  one  corner,  as  cases  are 
apt  to  do,  they  will  not  split  open,  the  nailing  and  cleating 
being  such  that  all  goods  are  protected.'* 

Silverware. — In  reference  to  export  shipments  of  sil- 
verware a  well-known  house  writes:  **Our  cases  are 
always  of  new  lumber  %"  in  thickness — average  size  of 
the  case  28"  x  13"  x  12"  and  should  we  use  a  larger  size 
case,  it  is  double  cleated  at  the  ends.  The  contents  of  the 
case  are  protected  by  a  covering  of  heavy  waterproof  tar 
paper  which  is  sealed  tight  before  the  cover  of  the  case 
is  put  on.** 

Further  reference  to  shipments  of  silverware  and 
similarly  valuable  merchandise  are  to  be  noted  in  connec- 
tion with  advice  elsewhere  given  relating  to  protection 
against  pilfering. 

Hats.— A  letter  received  from  a  large  exporter  says: 
*'A11  hats,  whether  for  export  or  domestic  shipment,  are 
first  packed  in  round  paseboard  cartons,  from  one  to  six 
hats  being  packed  in  each.  The  hats  are  held  in  place  in 
the  cartons  by  a  pasteboard  stay  placed  between  each 
hat.  Strips  of  tissue  paper  are  also  placed  between  each 
hat  to  prevent  rubbing.    The  process  of  this  inner  pack- 


678  EXPORT  PACKING 

ing  is  completed  by  covering  the  entire  top  of  the 
carton  with  tissue  paper  before  the  lid  is  put  on. 

**  Export  shipments  by  freight.  The  cartons  are 
packed  in  cases  made  of  new,  sound  lumber  of  a  thickness 
of  %",  strengthened  by  a  batten  3"  wide  and  y^"  thick, 
around  the  entire  ends  of  the  case.  The  case  is  lined  with 
waterproof  paper  and  is  further  protected  with  Glardon 
clips  and  angle  irons.  The  angle  irons  are  placed  around 
both  ends  of  the  case  at  a  distance  of  about  6"  apart. 
The  case  is  completed  by  placing  an  iron  strapping  1" 
wide  securely  around  both  ends. 

*^This  is  our  usual  method  of  packing  our  export  ship- 
ments for  freight,  but  on  shipments  to  the  Argentine 
Republic  and  to  the  West  Coast  of  South  America,  and 
South  Africa,  in  addition  to  the  above,  the  case  is  lined 
with  zinc,  the  top  and  bottom  being  soldered  so  that  it  is 
absolutely  waterproof.  Apart  from  the  question  of  ex- 
pense, this  we  consider  the  best  method  of  packing. 

''In  shipping  to  countries  where  the  duty  is  levied  on 
the  gross  weight,  the  question  becomes  one  of  lightness 
consistent  with  safety.  For  these  countries  we  use  a 
veneer  case  protected  by  battens  and  iron  straps  as  de- 
scribed above. 

*^  We  also  ship  in  zinc  or  tin  cases  crated  with  wooden 
slats  placed  about  6"  apart  all  around  the  case.'' 

Moving  Picture  Films.— Except  to  Brazil  and  Eng- 
land, moving  picture  films  are  packed  as  follows :  Each 
reel  is  wrapped  with  tissue  paper  and  placed  in  a  tin 
container  about  101/2"  in  diameter.  The  cover  of  the  con- 
tainer fits  down  tight,  but  it  is  not  sealed  or  fastened  in 
any  way.  On  each  container  is  pasted  a  label  giving  the 
title  of  the  film  and  the  number  of  the  reel. 

The  containers  are  packed  one  on  top  of  the  other  in 
a  square  case  of  North  Carolina  pine  %"  lumber.  From 
five  to  thirty-two  containers  are  packed  in  a  case,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  order.  The  case  is  lined  with  tin 
and  after  the  containers  have  been  packed,  a  piece  of  tin 
is  soldered  on  to  the  top  edges  of  the  lining  for  a  cover. 
The  lining  consists  simply  of  square  pieces  of  tin,  one  to 


PACKING  SUNDRY  COMMODITIES        679 

every  side  of  the  case  and  overlapping  at  the  comers  and 
sealed,  the  top  edges  being  bent  inward  about  an  inch  to 
support  the  tin  cover.  The  cover  of  the  wooden  case  is 
then  nailed  on,  two  opposite  sides  of  the  case  are  cleated, 
and  two  wire  straps  are  nailed  around  the  case  near  the 
edges. 

Almost  the  same  method  is  used  in  packing  for  Brazil, 
but  no  tin  containers  are  used,  since  there  is  a  duty  of 
$10  each  on  such  cans  in  that  country.  Each  reel  is  first 
wrapped  in  tissue  paper,  then  in  waxed  paper,  and  the 
reels  are  then  laid  on  top  of  each  other  in  the  tin-lined 
case. 

Films  going  to  England  are  packed  in  galvanized  iron 
cases  with  w^ooden  lining  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch 
thick.  Only  seven  reels  are  packed  in  a  case.  The  cover 
is  hinged  and  has  two  padlock  fastenings  and  on  top  of 
the  case  is  a  handle  for  convenience  in  lifting.  The 
wooden  lining  of  this  case  is  fastened  into  the  tin  with 
bolts. 

Picture  Moldings.  — A  large  exporter  of  picture  mold- 
ings writes:  '^In  taking  up  this  matter  in  detail,  we  find 
that  due  to  the  different  methods  and  customs  prevailing, 
especially  in  some  of  the  South  American  countries,  we 
have  to  adopt  three  methods  of  packing:  First  are  the 
standard  sized  wooden  cases  which  are  used  generally; 
second  are  our  special  wooden  cases  of  short  lengths  or 
light  weight  for  shipment  to  South  American  countries 
where  transportation  is  usually  by  pack  animals;  third, 
packing  in  bundles  for  shipment  to  countries  where  duties 
are  paid  by  the  gross  weight. 

**  Standard  method  of  packing.  As  our  moldings  all 
run  in  three  standard  lengths,  namely,  8',  10'  and  12',  we 
have  standardized  the  largest  percentage  of  our  packing 
in  three  cases  of  the  following  dimensions :  Box  No.  1 — 
outside  measurement  is  8'  6"  x  26"  x  14"  ;inside  8'  2"  x  24" 
X  12".  Box  No.  2— outside  10'  6"  x  26"  x  14" ;  inside 
10'  2"  X  24"  X  12".  Box  No.  3— outside  12'  6"  x  26"  x 
14" ;  inside  12'  2"  x  24"  x  12".  The  sizes  of  the  above 
boxes  are  practically  the  same  on  all  shipments,  due  to 


680  EXPORT  PACKING 

the  fact  that  the  majority  of  the  molding  is  sold  in  large 
quantities  and  each  pattern  or  similar  patterns  can  be 
packed  together. 

**Both  ends  of  these  boxes  are  made  of  two  thick- 
nesses of  inch  lumber ;  the  sides  are  of  one-inch  lumber 
and  the  top  and  bottom  are  cleated  with  strips  4"  x  1",  the 
open  places  between  cleats  being  boarded  up  solid  with 
one-half  inch  birch  lumber,  which  we  find  the  most  satis- 
factory for  making  cases,  as  it  is  very  tough. 

**The  boxes  are  lined  with  heavy  waterproof  paper, 
and  the  molding  is  packed  solid  so  that  there  will  be  no 
play  or  shifting  inside  of  the  boxes.  After  the  box  is 
packed  it  is  then  strapped  with  steel  fasteners. 

**When  large  moldings  are  packed  in  cases,  they  are 
always  tied  two  together  face  to  face  with  excelsior 
cushions  in  between,  as  large  moldings  are  not  so  easy  to 
pack  solidly  and  have  a  greater  tendency  to  shift  in  the 
box,  thus  rubbing  the  faces  and  spoiling  the  molding. 

**We  can  give  no  standard  weight  of  these  cases,  but 
they  will  average  from  550  to  750  pounds  each,  depending 
upon  the  kind  of  molding  packed  in  same. 

**  Second  sjpecial  method  of  packing  wooden  cases. 
These  cases  are  made  the  same  as  the  above  with  the 
exception  that  they  are  limited  to  5-foot  lengths  and  to 
160  pounds  gross  weight.  These  are  for  shipment  prin- 
cipally to  Colombia,  South  Amisrica,  where  it  is  necessary 
to  transport  cases  overland  via  pack  mules.'* 

To  some  countries,  especially  countries  in  Latin 
America,  and  above  all  to  Venezuela,  where  duties  are 
paid  on  the  basis  of  gross  weights,  picture  moldings  are 
sometimes  shipped  in  bundles,  to  which  reference  is  made 
in  the  special  chapter  devoted  to  shipments  of  that  de- 
scription. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
FOREIGN  PARCEL  POST  SHIPMENTS 

WITH  the  extension  of  our  parcel  post  conventions 
throughout  the  world,  the  United  States  will 
doubtless  soon  be  able  to  place  at  the  disposal  of 
shippers  the  same  facilities  which  the  United  Kingdom 
has  for  many  years  been  able  to  offer  to  exporters  in  that 
country.  Shipments  by  parcel  post  are  in  many  cases  to 
br  preferred  to  other  forms  of  shipment,  because  of  the 
lack  of  formalities  and  the  ease  of  passing  such  packages 
through  custom  houses  and  comparative  quickness  of 
transmission.  Again,  there  are  a  great  many  commodi- 
ties usually  sent  out  in  small  packages  for  which  the  par- 
cel post  is  an  ideal,  in  fact,  an  essential  way  of  shipping. 

In  1913  parcel  post  packages  could  be  sent  from  the 
United  States  to  only  forty-four  countries  of  the  world, 
and  the  limit  of  weight  was  eleven  pounds.  Today  the 
American  parcel  post  service  extends  to  more  than  one 
hundred  and  eighty  nations  and  colonies,  and  to  fifteen 
of  these  countries  one  may  send  parcels  up  to  twenty-two 
pounds  in  weight  and  to  one,  Panama,  up  to  fifty  pounds. 
In  1912  there  were  dispatched  from  the  United  States 
2,270,215  pounds  of  export  parcel  post  matter.  In  1913 
there  was  an  increase  of  600,000  pounds  and  in  1914  about 
500,000  pounds. 

Immediately  after  the  signing  of  the  armistice,  our 
Post  Office  Department  concluded  parcel  post  arrange- 
ments with  eighteen  foreign  countries  with  which  there 
had  been  no  conventions  up  to  that  time,  and  some  of  the 
very  important  markets  of  the  east,  south  and  west  were 
opened  up  to  American  foreign  parcel  post  business.  In 
rapid  succession  came  conventions  with  Spain  and  her 
colonies  and  with  Great  Britain  and  France  whereby  the 
American  parcel  post  system  was  extended  to  every  coun- 

681 


EXPORT  PACKING 

try  in  the  world  which  was  reached  by  the  parcel  post 
arrangements  of  these  two  nations.  In  a  very  short  time 
our  service  was  extended  to  about  one  hundred  and  eighty 
countries  as  against  forty-four  in  1912.  The  volume  of 
matter  sent  by  parcel  post  shows  a  corresponding  in- 
crease, namely,  from  2,270,215  pounds  sent  in  1912  to 
17,102,131  pounds  in  1919.  In  the  first  quarter  of  the 
fiscal  year  of  1920  the  post  office  sent  out  more  than 
6,000,000  pounds  by  parcel  post  or  more  than  was  dis- 
patched in  the  combined  years  of  1912  and  1913.  Indeed, 
so  great  has  the  volume  of  foreign  parcel  post  business 
become  that  our  Post  Office  Department  will  probably  ask 
for  a  deficiency  appropriation  of  at  least  $1,000,000  to 
pay  for  the  increased  cost  of  steamship  transportation. 

Since  the  whole  question  of  packing  for  foreign  parcel 
post  shipments  primarily  depends  upon  the  parcel  post 
arrangements  of  the  country  of  destination  and  the  con- 
vention of  our  own  country  with  that  other  country,  the 
very  first  step  in  filling  an  order  is  to  investigate  these 
regulations.  Shippers  should  always  have  close  at  hand 
for  ready  reference  the  latest  edition  of  the  United  States 
Official  Postal  Guide.  This  is  published  in  the  form  of  a 
cloth  bound  volume  in  July  of  each  year,  and  there  are 
monthly  supplements  which  keep  detailed  information 
and  the  official  instructions  up  to  date.  The  annual  sub- 
scription to  the  Guide  with  supplements  is  $2.25  and  the 
source  of  supply  the  Post  Office  Department,  Washington, 
D.  C.  Shippers  who  are  not  in  possession  of  the  Official 
Postal  Guide  will  always  find  it  and  its  monthly  supple- 
ments available  for  consultation  at  their  local  post  offices. 

The  regulations  affecting  the  dispatch  of  parcel  post 
packages  to  foreign  countries  are  numerous  and  vary 
with  the  different  countries  of  destination.  Sometimes 
regulations  define  the  merchandise  which  is  prohibited 
for  transmission  to  certain  countries.  Occasionally  there 
are  instructions  as  to  certain  special  packing  which  is 
obligatory  as  regards  some  commodities.  Special  sizes 
and  weights  of  parcels  which  are  allowed  and  the  rates  of 
postage  which  apply  to  shipments  to  all  countries  are 


FOREIGN  PARCEL  POST  SHIPMENTS     683 

enumerated.  In  the  case  of  a  few  countries  parcel  post 
packages  may  only  be  addressed  to  certain  specified  cities 
or  post  offices.  Regulations  also  refer  to  the  necessary 
customs  declarations  and  in  a  few  instances  to  the  con- 
sular invoices  which  must  accompany  packages  shipped 
by  parcel  post.  All  of  these  instructions  will  be  found 
clearly  set  forth  in  the  Official  Postal  Guide  under  the 
heading  of  the  countries  of  destination,  and  should  be 
carefully  investigated  in  the  case  of  each  parcel  post 
shipment. 

When  to  Use  Foreign  Parcel  Post.— In  general,  small 
quantities  of  merchandise  may  preferably  be  forwarded 
by  foreign  parcel  post  whenever  individual  units  of  ship- 
ment come  within  the  weight  limits  of  11  pounds,  or  22 
pounds,  or  whatever  the  official  limit  may  be  for  the 
country  of  destination.  Individual  units,  or  any  combina- 
tion of  them,  can  be  packed  in  a  parcel,  the  weight  of 
which  must  not  exceed  the  official  limit.  Any  number  of 
such  parcels  can  be  dispatched  to  cover  the  quantity  to 
be  forwarded.  Up  to  a  certain  point  it  will  usually  be 
found  cheaper  to  foi^ard  limited  quantities  of  merchan- 
dise by  parcel  post  than  by  freight  or  by  the  so-called 
** foreign  expresses,"  and  as  has  above  been  hinted,  par- 
cel post  shipments  arrive  as  promptly,  to  say  the  least,  as 
do  freight  shipments.  When,  however,  it  is  a  question  of 
shipping  a  considerable  quantity  of  merchandise,  the 
point  will  ultimately  be  reached  when  freight  rates  or 
** foreign  express'*  rates  for  the  quantity  of  merchandise 
in  question  will  compare  more  than  favorably  with  the 
parcel  post  charges.  In  this  connection  it  is  to  be  borne 
in  mind,  that  in  some  countries  there  is  a  delivery  charge 
imposed  on  the  consignee  applying  to  each  parcel  post 
package  in  addition  to  the  United  States  postage  which 
has  been  prepaid,  and  in  some  countries  there  is  a  surtax 
which  the  consignee  must  pay,  in  the  case  of  Australia 
amounting  to  12  cents  per  parcel,  over  and  above  other 
charges.  Considerations  such  as  these  may  affect  the 
shipper's  choice  of  the  means  by  which  he  will  forward 
his  goods  to  the  best  satisfaction  of  his  customer. 


684  EXPORT  PACKING 

It  may  also  here  be  pointed  out  that  samples  of  no 
commercial  value  ought  not  to  be  dispatched  by  parcel 
post  unless  such  samples  have  been  specifically  requested 
by  foreign  merchants.  When  a  parcel  post  package  ar- 
rives in  a  foreign  post  office,  if  it  contains  dutiable  goods, 
the  consignee  is  called  upon  to  pay  the  usual  import 
duties.  He  will  not  be  pleased  to  do  so  if  a  sample  has 
been  sent  without  his  knowledge  or  permission,  at  least, 
unless  the  sample  is  something  which  he  wants,  and  may 
very  likely  refuse  to  take  delivery  of  the  parcel.  Shippers 
may  be  reminded  that  there  is  available  the  ''sample 
post^^  which  is  preferable  for  use  when  samples  have  no 
commercial  value  and  weigh  less  than  12  ounces.  Simi- 
larly, advertising  matter  and  catalogues  should  be  sent 
preferably  as  ''printed  matter''  rather  than  by  parcel 
post  in  order  to  avoid  excessive  customs  duty  charges. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  sometimes  prohibited  to  ship  val- 
uable articles  in  the  regular  mails.  Fountain  pens 
shipped  to  Japan  are  subject  to  duty  in  that  country  and 
will  not  be  accepted  in  the  regular  mails  from  the  United 
States  but  must  be  forwarded  by  parcel  post. 

Grcneral  Regulations.— While  quite  impossible  in  this 
chapter  to  reprint  the  elaborate  and  detailed  regulations 
applying  to  foreign  parcel  post  shipments,  it  may  be  de- 
sirable at  this  point  to  resume  briefly  a  few  of  the  general 
instructions  issued  by  the  Post  Office  Department. 

A  parcel  may  not  be  posted  in  a  letter  box  or  package 
box  but  must  be  taken  into  the  post  office  or  post  office 
station  and  presented  to  the  officer  or  clerk  in  charge. 

The  postage  in  all  cases  must  be  prepaid  by  means  of 
postage  stamps,  which  must  be  affixed  to  the  parcel.  The 
general  postage  rate  is  12  cents  for  each  pound  or  frac- 
tion of  a  pound,  consequently  if  a  parcel  weighs  even 
a  quarter  of  an  ounce  over  a  pound,  another  full  rate 
must  be  prepaid  or  the  parcel  will  not  be  dispatched  from 
the  United  States.  The  general  rate  of  12  cents  per 
pound,  or  fraction  thereof,  is  broken  in  exceptional  cases, 
applying  to  parcel  post  packages  intended  for  a  good 
many  countries  which  are  reached  from  the  United  States 


FOREIGN  PARCEL  POST  SHIPMENTS     685 

by  dispatch  from  here  through  the  intermediary  of  an- 
other country  (for  example,  Great  Britain  or  France), 
and  charges  for  the  transportation  over  the  territory  of 
the  other  country  are  therefore  imposed  by  it.  Such 
charges,  in  addition  to  the  postage,  must  be  paid  by  the 
senders  by  means  of  United  States  postage  stamps  affixed 
to  each  parcel  post  package  concerned  at  the  time  of 
mailing. 

Customs  duties  on  parcels  which  may  be  imposed  by 
foreign  countries  of  destination  cannot  be  prepaid  by  the 
senders  in  this  country.  They  are  collected  from  the 
addressees  when  the  parcels  are  delivered.  An  exception 
to  this  rule  is  found  in  the  provisions  for  the  prepayment 
of  customs  duties  on  catalogues  and  advertising  circu- 
lars shipped  to  Australia  and  the  Union  of  South  Africa. 

Printed  catalogues  or  other  advertising  circulars  are 
subject  to  customs  duties  in  Australia  and  the  Union  of 
South  Africa,  even  when  forwarded  in  single  copies  ad- 
dressed to  individuals,  when  the  weights  of  such  packages 
exceed  certain  specified  limits.  This  is  a  very  important 
matter  to  manufacturers  who  wish  to  get  their  catalogues 
into  the  hands  of  possible  buyers  of  their  goods  in  these 
countries,  without  imposing  a  penalty  on  their  prospec- 
tive customers  for  the  privilege  of  receiving  the  manufac- 
turer's advertising  matter.  There  are  also  duties  on 
catalogues  and  printed  advertising  material  in  Canada, 
New  Zealand  and  other  countries  of  the  world,  but  such 
duties  apply  to  bulk  shipments,  and  such  shipments  are 
usually  to  be  regarded  as  similar  to  shipments  of  general 
merchandise  and  the  same  necessity  does  not  exist  of 
landing  in  the  hands  of  the  addressees  without  charge. 
The  duty  on  catalogues  sent  to  Australia  and  South 
Africa  may,  unlike  any  other  kind  of  customs  duties,  be 
prepaid  by  the  sender  in  this  country  in  the  following 
ways :  In  the  case  of  Australia,  customs  duty  stamps  may 
be  purchased  from  the  Australian  Customs  Representa- 
tive in  New  York  City,  from  whom  also  full  information, 
the  details  of  the  duty  required  by  different  weights  of 
packages,  etc.,  may  be  obtained.    In  the  case  of  the  Union 


6S6  EXPORT  PACKING 

of  South  Africa,  the  shipper  in  this  country  may  obtain 
customs  duty  stamps  of  that  Union  from  the  office  of  the 
High  Commissioner  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa,  72 
Victoria  Street,  London,  S.  W.  Details  as  to  the  amounts 
of  duty  to  be  thus  prepaid  will  be  found  in  the  United 
States  Official  Postal  Guide. 

Any  article  absolutely  prohibited  admission  to  the 
regular  mails  for  any  country  is  also  inadmissable  to  par- 
cel post  mails  for  that  country,  but  no  article  is  excluded 
from  parcel  post  mails  solety  because  it  is  dutiable  in  the 
country  of  destination. 

A  letter  of  communication  of  the  nature  of  personal 
correspondence  must  not  accompany,  be  written  on  or 
enclosed  with  any  parcel,  but  an  open  bill  or  invoice  may 
be  enclosed  in  a  parcel. 

^■No  parcel  may  contain  packages  addressed  to  per- 
sons other  than  the  person  named  in  the  outside  address 
of  the  parcel  itself. ' '  This  official  regulation,  it  should  be 
noted,  applies  to  *  addressed'  packages  within  a  parcel. 
There  is  nothing  in  the  regulations  to  prohibit  the  send- 
ing of  several  packages  separately  wrapped  and  serially 
numbered,  within  a  general  parcel  even  when  these  sep- 
arate packages  may  be  intended  for  different  consignees, 
in  regard  to  which  a  separate  letter  to  the  original  con- 
signee of  the  whole  parcel  may  have  given  instructions 
regarding  separate  deliveries. 

Parcel  post  packages  are  only  accepted  for  transmis- 
sion to  certain  specified  cities  or  post  offices  in  the  case  of 
a  few  countries  of  the  world.  In  general,  the  parcel  post 
system  reaches  all  post  offices  in  countries  to  which  the 
parcel  post  extends.  However,  notably  in  China  and 
Brazil  (see  official  regulations),  there  are  comparatively 
few  points  to  which  the  parcel  post  is  delivered.  If  it  is 
desired  to  ship  parcels  intended  for  other  destinations  in 
these  countries  than  the  cities  officially  listed,  then  ar- 
rangements must  be  made  with  the  consignees  in  those 
countries  to  take  delivery  of  such  parcels  at  the  officially 
designated  post  offices.  The  United  States  Post  Office  De- 
partment will  not   accept  parcels   for   destinations   in 


FOREIGN  PARCEL  POST  SHIPMENTS     687 

Brazil  outside  of  seven  specified  post  offices  in  that  conn- 
try,  unless  the  address  side  of  each  such  parcel  is  marked 
** Sender's  Kisk''  or  ''Delivery  Arranged/' 

Re^stration  of  Parcels.— Parcel  post  packages  for 
most  countries  of  the  world  may  be  registered  (for  excep- 
tions see  Official  Postal  Guide),  and  whenever  possible 
they  should  be  registered.  Shippers  of  parcels  to  most 
countries  for  which  registration  is  possible  may,  if  they 
so  request  it,  receive  a  return  receipt  from  the  addressee 
of  the  parcel  without  special  charge  therefor.  Further- 
more, and  a  point  which  is  not  always  understood  by  all 
shippers,  even  when  parcels  are  not  registered,  the  sender 


f»ARCCL  POST  BcrwccN  UNfTCO  STATES  AwoLoloTTlbl-a 

f  Form  of  CUSTOMS    OECLARATIOfl 


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*Tq  be  GUf<I  I  .lit  It  (hr  U>  ■• 
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7- 


Customs  Declaration,  lorm  2966,  which  must  be  attached  to  all  parcel 
post  packages  for  foreign  countries. 

may  obtain  a  receipt  from  the  United  States  post  office 
for  the  packages  which  he  delivers  to  the  post  office  for 
transmission  by  foreign  parcel  post  mails.  The  office  of 
mailing  will,  if  requested,  fill  out  and  date  stamp  a  **  cer- 
tificate of  mailing'*  without  charge,  and  it  will  supply 
duplicate  and  triplicate  of  the  same  certificate  at  a  charge 
of  one  cent  each.  These  proofs  of  actual  mailing  of  par- 
cels may  be  extremely  important  and  even  valuable. 

Insurance  of  Parcel  Post.— The  official  regulations  de- 
clare that  "parcel  post  packages  to  foreign  countries  (in- 
cluding Mexico  and  Panama)  cannot  be  insured.''  It 
should  be  understood,  however,  that  this  official  regula- 


688 


EXPORT  PACKING 


tion  applies  only  to  government  insurances.  All  parcel 
post  packages  may  be  insured  through  certain  marine  in- 
surance companies,  some  of  which  specialize  in  this  form 
of  insurance.  The  matter  of  insurance  should  be  care- 
fully considered  in  packing,  for  the  average  insurance 
policy  contains' a  clause  limiting  the  company's  responsi- 
bility per  package,  that  limit  usually  being  lower  for 
countries  to  which  packages  cannot  be  registered.  This 
limit  ought  never  to  be  exceeded  by  the  value  of  the  goods 
because  in  case  of  loss  the  insurance  company's  respon- 
sibility is  limited  to  the  amount  of  the  policy.    On  this 


THE  ADDRIS9  OT  THE  PARCEL  SHOULD  BE  WRITTEN  OH  THI«, 
AS  WEU.  AS  OM  THE  PARCEL  ITSELF. 


. ^I?.u£.^....31ks.:5f-...Jr.-_„Lb 


nparl^Qo   SOI 


Reverse  side  of  Form  2966. 


account,  it  is  often  advisable  to  pack  a  consignment  in 
several  separate  packages,  even  though  otherwise  one 
package  alone  might  have  been  sufficient. 

Customs  Declarations.— A  *' Customs  Declaration," 
Form  2966  (which  will  be  furnished  on  application  at  the 
post  office  or  station),  must  be  properly  and  fully  filled 
out,  stating  the  actual  contents,  value,  etc.,  of  the  parcel. 
General  terms  such  as  ** merchandise'^  or  ** samples''  will 
not  answer ;  contents  must  be  accurately  described  in  the 
English  language,  although  an  interlineation  in  another 
language,  if  desired,  may  be  furnished.  The  ^*  Customs 
Declaration"  must  be  firmly  attached  to  the  cover  of  the 
parcel,  but  not  pasted  or  affixed  so  that  it  will  seal  the 


FOREIGN  PARCEL  POST  SHIPMENTS     689 

package  and  prevent  examination  of  the  contents  without 
damaging  the  cover.  In  addition  to  being  tied  by  means 
of  a  cord  passing  through  the  eyelet,  the  tag  should  be 
bound  flat  to  the  parcel  (with  the  front  or  *' declaration '* 
side  facing  out)  so  that  the  tag  cannot  be  used  as  a  handle 
to  lift  the  package  while  in  transit. 

A  special  **  Customs  Declaration,  *'  Form  2967,  must 
be  attached  to  parcels  for  France  and  certain  French 
colonies,  in  addition  to  the  regular  Form  2966.  In  the 
case  of  some  countries  two  or  more  copies  of  the  Cus- 
toms Declaration,  either  Form  2966  or  Form  2967,  are 
required. 


BOTH  SIDES  OP  THIS  FORM  MUST  BE  FILLED  IN.)  TO  BE  mXED  OUT  AT  TBS 


Declaration  lor  the  Frencli  Customs. 

(T>S'0  DECLARATIONS  MUST  ACCOMPANY  EACH  PACKAGE.) 
FOU  OF  PACXAfiE  AND  NATOIte  OF  ITS  COMTENTl 


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Special   Customs   Declaration,  Form  29(37,  which  must  be  attached  to  all 
parcel  post  packages  for  France,  in  addition  to  Form  2966. 

Customs  Declarations  take  the  place  of  certified  in- 
voices in  most  parcel  post  transactions,  and  they  must 
therefore  accurately  describe  the  contents  of  parcels,  and 
state  their  exact  and  correct  value.  Much  complaint  has 
been  received  from  foreign  post  offices  as  to  the  incorrect 
declaration  of  the  contents  of  parcels.  The  values  must 
be  the  current  values  of  the  finished  articles.  Over-valua- 
tion involves  expense  and  inconvenience  to  the  addressee ; 
under-valuation  leads  to  the  confiscation  of  the  parcel  and 
its  contents.  Each  parcel  must  have  its  own  Customs 
Declaration  attached,  describing  the  contents  and  giving 
the  value  for  that  individual  package,  and  no  package  will 


690  EXPORT  PACKING 

be  accepted  by  the  post-office  without  the  Customs  Dec- 
laration, properly  filled  out,  being  attached. 

If  possible,  information  should  be  obtained  from  the 
customer  as  to  the  manner  of  declaring  the  shipment 
according  to  the  laws  of  the  country  of  the  customer ;  the 
classifications  and  rate  of  duty  on  the  merchandise  en- 
closed, with  the  specified  paragraph  under  which  it  is 
enumerated  in  the  tariff  laws,  whenever,  as  is  the  case  in 
many  Latin  American  republics,  penalties  are  imposed 
for  wrongful  declarations.  The  Customs  Declaration  tag 
(reproduced  in  this  chapter)  is  the  only  formality  which 
must  be  complied  with  in  the  case  of  parcel  post  ship- 
ments.   No  filing  of  .shipper 's  declaration  at  custom  house 


Wwrm  N«.  2967 -N«.  2  Bis. 
{BOTH  SIDES  OF  THIS  FORM  IMUST  BE  FIIXED  IN.) 

Parcel-Post  Between  The  United  States  and  France. 

DECLARATION  FOR  THE  FRENCH  CUSTOMS. 

^TWO  DECLARATIONS  MUST  ACCOMPANY  EACH  PACKAGE.) 

Tk  stjBk,  resi&ig  at  ...2..0.O. JB.roadi,wav....,.J:l.c^...Yc>r.k..,£d:Y,, ^ 

declares  Ikal  Ik  seods  to  Mr. ITean .^.U.JQd.St ^ 

A  34,  3ou\.£Vax.ci.  dfcs. Tia.lLeT\fe..,ll*rus^l:ra«tiec'«"b^      ^^<^M 

IB  drtsil  «3  Ik  otW  sWe,  or^iMii^  » St.aifes., ....„ ..^ 

iwti  a>iis  tl'ar  ihf  tastoms  larmaliiies  i*  eaoiBlp;  ,  iij  Franre)  of  r'V. 


Reverse  side  oi  Form  2967. 

or  other  similar  formalities  are  required,  as  is  necessary 
in  shipping  goods  by  freight. 

No  erasure  or  amendment  should  be  made  in  the  en- 
tries relating  to  the  description,  number,  value,  etc.,  of 
contents  of  the  package.  A  separate  entry  should  be 
made  of  each  kind  of  article  or  goods,  describing  pre- 
cisely in  each  instance  the  quality,  quantity  by  number, 
measurement  and  net  weight  (in  grams  when  packages 
are  destined  for  countries  using  the  metric  system). 

Addressing  Packages.— Every  parcel  must  be  plainly 
addressed  in  ink,  giving  the  name  and  full  address  of  the 
person  for  whom  the  parcel  is  intended.    It  should  bear 


FOREIGN  PARCEL  POST  SHIPMENTS     691 

the  words  ** Parcel  Post**  conspicuously  in  the  upper  left- 
hand  comer  and  the  name  and  address  of  the  sender 
in  such  a  position  that  it  will  not  be  mistaken  for  the 
address  of  the  parcel.  The  standard  specifications  of 
the  War  Department  for  marking  packages  are  worthy  of 
note  in  this  connection.  *^  Marks  may  be  applied  in  the 
form  of  printed  labels  marked  with  waterproof  ink  in 
letters  not  less  than  one-fourth  inch  high.  At  least  two 
labels,  containing  all  markings,  should  be  glued  to  each 
package,  one  on  each  end.  Such  labels  to  be  made  of  sul- 
phite paper,  sulphate  kraft  paper,  or  other  approved 
paper,  and  should  be  applied  with  hide  glue,  fish  glue,  or 
casein  glue.  After  being  glued,  the  addressed  label 
should  be  brushed  over  with  a  coating  of  formaldehyde.'* 

The  official  post  office  regulations  applying  to  parcel 
post  shipments  to  Russia  provide  for  certain  special  ad- 
dressing which  perhaps  may  profitably  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  general  regarding  parcel  post  shipments. 
**  Parcels  covered  with  oil-cloth  must  be  provided  with  a 
stout  linen-backed  label  securely  sewn  to  the  cover  by 
stitching  along  the  edges  and  diagonally  across  the  label, 
on  which  a  clear  space  not  less  than  5  inches  by  3  inches 
has  been  left  for  affixing  official  labels.  The  parcels  may 
be  addressed  on  the  rest  of  the  label.  If  addressed  on 
the  cover  itself,  the  address  must  be  painted  on  the  cover, 
preferably  with  white  paint.  The  name  and  address  of 
the  sender  must  be  shown  on  the  cover  of  every  parcel.  *  * 

All  mail  articles  addressed  in  German,  Russian, 
Greek,  Turkish,  Hebrew  or  Chinese  characters,  even  if 
they  bear  in  English,  ^* Germany,**  *' Russia,**  *^ Greece,** 
'* Turkey**  or  '* China,'*  etc.,  should  have  an  interlined 
translation  of  each  address  in  English,  or  in  lieu  of  these 
two  addresses,  the  names  of  the  post  office  and  country 
of  destination  in  Roman  or  English  characters,  print  or 
script. 

Packing  for  Foreign  Parcel  Post.— There  is  no  little 
complaint  of  insufficient  packing  in  our  own  domestic  par- 
cel post  mails.  The  necessity  for  extra  strong  and  thor- 
oughly secure  packing  for  foreign  parcel  post  is  doubly 


692  EXPORT  PACKING 

to  be  emphasized.  In  the  past  few  months  repeated  com- 
plaints have  been  received  by  the  United  States  Post 
Office  as  to  the  condition  in  which  our  parcel  post  pack- 
ages have  arrived  at  foreign  destinations.  It  is  alleged 
that  at  one  time  500  damaged  packages  were  received  in 
London  from  this  country,  damaged  in  consequence  of 
poor  wrapping  and  packing  and  improper  preparation 
for  transmission  overseas.  Similar  complaints  have  been 
received  not  only  from  far  distant  points  like  China  and 
Australia,  but  from  Central  America  and  even  from 
Canada. 

In  the  first  place,  it  should  be  understood  by  shippers 
that  our  parcel  post  mails  are  usually  sent  from  this 
country  in  ordinary  mail  bags.  Some  European  coun- 
tries '  ship  their  parcel  post  packages  in  hampers  and 
cases.  This  is  sometimes  done  in  the  American  mails  but 
more  frequently  ordinary  mail  sacks  are  employed.  A 
hamper  or  a  case  protects  the  packages  within  from 
rough  handling.  There  is  no  such  protection  when  mail 
bags  are  employed,  which  are  thrown  about  in  the  way 
to  which  everybody  is  accustomed :  from  the  mail  wagon 
to  the  wharf,  from  the  wharf,  into  the  ship,  with  scores  or 
perhaps  hundreds  of  other  bags  and  packages  on  top, 
lugged  and  dragged  about  and  finally  stored  on  board 
ship,  which,  when  it  arrives  at  the  foreign  port,  reverses 
the  operation  and  the  sacks  are  thrown  helter-skelter 
and  violently  from  the  ship  on  board  a  lighter  or  on  to  a 
wharf,  with  the  natural  and  inevitable  consequence  that 
all  light  parcels  included  in  these  bags,  whether  made  of 
wood  or  pasteboard,  are  morally  certain  to  be  damaged 
if  not  completely  smashed  and  their  contents  possibly 
lost  or  destroyed. 

The  natural  disposition  of  a  shipper  is  to  pack  a 
parcel  post  package  as  light  as  possible  in  order  to  save 
postage,  but  only  soft  articles  which  will  stand  crushing 
should  ever  be  shipped  in  any  containers  not  strong 
enough  to  stand  up  under  the  rough  usage  just  above  de- 
scribed, no  matter  if  a  few  cents'  extra  postage  is  re- 
quired to  carry  the  heavier,  stronger  container.    It  must 


FOREIGN  PARCEL  POST  SHIPMENTS     693 

be  remembered  that  the  friction  resulting  to  articles  con- 
tained in  sacks  stored  in  the  mail  rooms  of  ocean  steam- 
ers is  considerable,  and  even  wrapping  papers  for  news- 
papers and  magazines  should  be  much  stronger  than  is 
normally  required  in  our  domestic  mails. 

Another  preliminary  consideration  in  connection  with 
the  packing  for  foreign  parcel  post  mails  is  the  destina- 
tion of  the  package  and  the  treatment  which  it  is  likely 
to  undergo  in  country  or  destination.  In  some  foreign 
countries,  in  China,  perhaps,  parcel  post  packages  are 
carried  for  as  much  as  fourteen  days  on  camelback.  In 
Central  American  countries  mails  for  interior  points 
are  sent  on  muleback,  frequently  involving  trips  of  from 
three  to  six  days,  fording  rivers  and  exposed  to  tropical 
rain  storms.  Sacks  have  to  be  roped  tightly  to  the  ani- 
mals which  transport  the  mails  to  prevent  their  slipping, 
and  the  ropes  are  quite  sure  to  crush  any  light  packages 
contained  within  the  sacks,  while  the  necessity  for  water- 
proof protection  is  even  more  emphatic  in  the  case  of 
parcel  post  shipments  than  it  is  in  the  case  of  regular 
freight  shipments. 

Packa;ges  Presented  Open  for  Inspection.— The  post 
office  regulations  provide  that  every  package  must  be 
securely  and  safely  packed  so  that  it  can  be  safely  trans- 
mitted in  ordinary  mail  sacks,  and  it  must  be  so  wrapped 
or  enclosed  that  its  contents  can  be  easily  examined  by 
postmasters  and  customs  officials.  Boxes  with  lids 
screwed  or  nailed  on  may  be  used  and  bags  closed  by 
means  of  sewing,  providing  they  are  presented  at  the 
post  office  open  for  inspection  and  are  then  closed  by  the 
sender.  There  are,  however,  three  or  four  countries  for 
which  parcels  are  accepted  by  the  post  office  for  mailing 
even  though  they  are  sealed  and  closed  against  inspec- 
tion, providing  they  conform  to  other  prescribed  condi- 
tions. This  means  that  as  a  rule  the  outside  box  or  other 
container  must  be  easily  opened  for  inspection,  and 
that  small  boxes  or  packages  enclosed  in  the  outside  con- 
tainer must  also  be  easily  opened  or  their  contents  other- 
wise readily  inspected. 


cm  EXPORT  PACKING 

For  example,  a  prominent  manufacturer  of  fountain 
pens  doing  a  very  large  parcel  post  business  has  an  inter- 
esting method  for  packing  his  pens  in  cardboard  cartons 
containing  from  six  upwards.  This  manufacturer  uses 
a  so-called  ** outlook  box*'  in  three  sizes,  containing  six, 
nine  and  twelve  pens.  The  box  has  two  openings  in  the 
cover  through  which  the  quantity  of  pens  and  clip  caps 
may  be  checked  without  the  unsealing  of  the  carton.  The 
upper  opening  shows  the  clip,  the  lower  shows  the  holder. 
To  prevent  pilfering  and  unjust  claims,  each  carton  is 
sealed  with  a  band  bearing  a  list  of  its  contents.  The 
individual  pen  boxes  in  which  fountain  pens  are  usually 
sold  are  placed  empty  in  layers  on  the  top  and  bottom  of 
the  ** outlook  box,''  thus  forming  a  cushion  which  is  an 
added  protection  in  shipping. 

This  feature  is  covered  by  the  official  regulations 
which  read:  *'The  presence  in  an  unsealed  parcel  of 
sealed  receptacles  containing  mailable  articles  which 
cannot  be  safely  transmitted  in  the  unsealed  receptacles 
will  not  render  the  parcel  unmailable,  provided  the  con- 
tents of  the  sealed  receptacles  are  plainly  visible  or  are 
unmistakably  indicated  by  the  method  of  packing  or  by  a 
precise  statement  on  the  covers.  But  such  sealed  re- 
ceptacles will  not  be  admitted  to  the  parcel  post  unless 
enclosed  in  an  outside  cover  open  to  inspection." 

Interior  Preparation  and  Protection.— The  first  essen- 
tial in  preparing  merchandise  for  shipment  by  parcel 
post  is  that  the  contents  of  the  whole  parcel,  whether  in 
one  or  several  packages,  be  individually  wrapped  in  good 
.waterproof  paper  and  adequately  tied  with  twine  fast- 
ened by  loop  knots,  permitting  ease  in  opening  if  re- 
quired. The  interior  packages  ought  not  to  be  sealed,  at 
least  not  until  after  presentation  at  the  post  office.  Soft 
articles  of  a  yielding  nature,  such  as  hosiery  or  clothing, 
should  be  folded  to  make  a  uniform  package,  tied  with 
twine  after  being  compressed  and  then  wrapped  with  a 
waterproof  paper,  which  is  similarly  tied,  the  twine  run- 
ning at  least  once  around  the  smallest  dimensions  of  the 
parcel  and  at  least  twice  around  the  larger  dimensions. 


FOREIGN  PARCEL  POST  SHIPMENTS     695 

The  second  important  thing  in  the  preparation  of  the 
interior  contents  of  a  parcel  is  that  the  contents  fit  very 
snugly  and  tightly.  The  package  should  be  rigid.  Any 
play  that  is  permitted  increases  the  danger  of  damage 
to  the  goods  and  of  breakage  of  the  exterior  container. 
The  contents  themselves  should  be  made  rigid  and  the 
outside  container  should  fit  exactly,  or,  if  any  stuffing  is 
required  it  should  make  the  contents  tight  and  absolutely 
prevent  any  shaking  about  in  the  container,  while  at 
the  same  time  it  must  be  light  in  weight,  whether  it  is 
excelsior,  paper  wadding,  or  what-not,  although  it  is 
clear  that  the  effort  to  save  twelve  cents  in  postage  by 
eliminating  weight  in  package  may  sometimes  cause  a 
loss  from  damage  of  many  times  that  amount. 

The  preparation  of  merchandise  for  parcel  post  ship- 
ment sometimes  involves  careful  consideration  of  import 
duties  in  the  country  of  destination,  as  has  been  sug- 
gested in  regard  to  regular  freight  shipments.  Thus,  in 
Latin  American  countries  where  goods  pay  duty  on  legal 
weight,  the  immediate  packing  around  the  articles  them- 
selves may  frequently  be  omitted  with  advantage.  Thus, 
prominent  exporters  of  jewelry  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  in  a  number  of  Latin  American  countries  jewelry 
should  not  be  shipped  attached  to  cards  or  packed  in  dis- 
play trays  or  boxes.  Small  tags  may  be  used  in  place  of 
cards  and  the  jewelry  may  be  wrapped  in  tissue  paper 
for  the  immediate  wrapper.  The  cards  commonly  em- 
ployed in  the  United  States  are  rarely  used  by  retailers 
in  the  countries  in  question.  If  boxes  or  trays  are 
shipped  they  may  either  be  forwarded  separately  or,  in 
some  cases,  the  net  weights  of  the  jewelry  itself  and  of 
the  boxes  or  trays  may  be  declared  separately. 

The  following  statement  from  the  Official  Postal 
Guide  gives  definite  instructions  as  to  certain  forms  of 
interior  packages:  **It  is  permissible  to  accept  liquids, 
dyes,  greasy  substances,  and  similar  articles  inclosed  in 
lead-sealed  metal  containers  for  those  foreign  countries 
admitting  such  articles  in  the  parcel  post  mails,  provided 
the  containers  are  labeled  in  printing  so  as  to  show  the 


696  EXPORT  PACKING 

nature  of  the  contents,  the  quantity,  and  the  name  of  the 
manufacturer  or  dealer,  and,  in  addition,  such  containers 
are  inclosed  in  substantial  outside  covers  open  to 
inspection. 

**With  respect  to  compression  or  friction  top  metal 
cans  or  containers,  it  should  be  suggested  to  manufac- 
turers and  dealers  that  these  compression  and  friction 
top  metal  cans  or  containers  be  lead  sealed  or  soldered 
in  at  least  .four  places,  so  as  to  render  them  acceptable 
for  mailing,  as  indicated  in  the  paragraph  above,  and 
thus  insure  the  lids  from  being  forced  out  of  place  in 
the  course  of  transit.  It  is  preferred,  however,  that 
inside  containers  be  used  that  will  permit  closing  by 
screw  top  covers  with  sufficient  screw  threads  to  re- 
quire at  least  one  and  one-half  complete  turns  before 
the  covers  will  come  off,  such  covers,  when  employed, 
to  be  provided  with  washers,  so  as  to  prevent  possible 
leakage  of  the  contents.'' 

The  Outside  Container.— Official  instructions  to  post- 
masters provide  that  '^parcels  packed  in  thin,  flimsy 
paper  or  packed  in  thin  pasteboard  boxes  will  not  be 
accepted."  Further  than  this  there  are  no  official  regula- 
tions of  a  general  nature  but  numerous  hints  of  great 
importance  will  be  found  in  the  *' Observations''  which 
appear  in  the  Official  Postal  Guide  under  the  different 
foreign  countries  to  which  parcel  post  mails  are  dis- 
patched. For  example,  under  the  heading  of  Egypt,  we 
find  the  following : 

**  Parcels  for  the  Sudan  must  be  packed  in  wood,  tin, 
canvas,  linen,  or  similar  material,  and  not  merely  in 
brown  paper  or  cardboard,  and  be  securely  sealed  with 
wax  or  lead,  preferably  lead.  Parcels  not  packed  in 
wooden  or  metal  boxes  must  be  covered  with  canvas, 
linen,  or  similar  material  sewn  up  at  the  flaps  and  folds 
and  secured  with  string  sealed  at  the  knots  and  ends. 
Wooden  boxes  must  be  of  stout  material,  well  screwed  or 
nailed  together  at  the  sides,  top,  and  bottom.  Light  and 
bulky  articles  must  be  packed  in  strong  wooden  cases. 
Parcels  containing  bacon,  ham,  honey,  cheese,  cakes,  pud- 


FOREIGN  PARCEL  POST  SHIPMENTS     697 

dings,  fish,  olives,  butter,  or  other  substances  likely  to 
cause  damage  by  exuding,  must,  in  addition  to  the  outer 
packing  described  above,  be  inclosed  in  hermetically 
sealed  tins  or  surrounded  with  some  absorbent  material, 
such  as  sawdust/' 

Under  instructions  applying  to  parcel  post  for  Russia, 
the  Guide  observes :  ' '  Parcels  must  be  packed  in  wood, 
tin,  canvas,  linen,  or  similar  material,  and  not  merely  in 
paper  or  cardboard,  and  be  securely  sealed  with  wax  or 
lead,  preferably  lead.  Parcels  not  packed  in  wooden  or 
metal  boxes  must  be  covered  with  canvas,  linen  or  oil- 
cloth (not  linen  faced  paper)  sewn  up  at  the  flaps  and 
folds,  and  secured  with  string  sealed  at  the  ends  and 
knots.  Wooden  boxes  must  be  of  stout  material,  well 
screwed  or  nailed  together  at  the  sides,  top  and  bottom. 
To  avoid  delay  at  the  Russian  frontier,  senders  are 
strongly  advised  to  tie  alt  parcels  round  with  cord,  seal- 
ing the  loose  ends  with  lead  seals.''  In  regard  to  these 
special  regulations  it  should  be  noted  that  the  sealing, 
sewing,  nailing,  etc.,  which  are  advised,  must  be  done 
after  presentation  of  the  parcel  at  the  mailing  office. 

The  Canadian  Post  Office  Department  not  long  ago 
issued  the  following:  '* Ordinary  brown  paper  wrapping 
and  ordinary  cardboard  boxes,  such  as  shoe  boxes,  are 
not  sufficient,  nor  should  thin  wooden  boxes  be  used. 
Strong  paper  cardboard  or  strawboard  boxes  are  recom- 
mended, especially  those  of  corrugated  cardboard  with 
laps  which  completely  close  the  sides  also.  Strong 
wooden  boxes,  tin  boxes  such  as  are  used  for  packing  bis- 
cuits, and  several  folds  of  stout  wrapping  paper  may  suf- 
fice, according  to  the  size  and  nature  of  the  goods." 

In  a  recent  statement  to  the  present  writer,  the  Second 
Assistant  Postmaster  General  strongly  deprecated  the 
use  of  thin  wooden  boxes  iii  parcel  post  shipments.  ' '  The 
acceptance  should  be  discouraged,  of  pasteboard  boxes, 
parcels  wrapped  in  paper  of  less  than  a  reasonable  de- 
gree of  thickness  or  of  reasonable  tensile  strength,  pack- 
ages tied  with  weak  twine,  and  unstrapped  wooden  boxes 
made  of  material  less  than  one-half  inch  thick. ' ' 


698  EXPORT  PACKING 

A  well-known  New  York  export  house  writes  in  regard 
to  parcel  post  shipments  that  there  should  always  be  a 
final  outer  covering  of  cloth  material  of  some  sort  which 
will  show  quickly  if  any  pilfering  has  taken  place.  This 
exporter  strongly  favors  oilcloth  covers. 

Wood  and  Tin  Containers.— In  many  instances,  the 
use  of  wooden  or  tin  outside  containers  is  strongly  to 
be  recommended,  yet,  whenever  possible,  precautions 
should  be  taken  that  any  such  containers  should  be  so 
prepared  that  the  corners  and  edges  will  not  be  likely 
to  damage  other  parcels  with  which  they  may  come  in 
contact  in  the  mail  bags,  remembering  the  constant  and 
long  continued  friction  to  which  the  contents  of  these 
bags  are  subjected.  Wooden  boxes  should  be  stout  and 
strong,  yet  of  the  minimum  weight  possible  according  to 
the  contents.  Light  woods,  such  as  bass  or  white  pine, 
are  recommended.  The  American  Red  Cross  in  its 
instructions  for  the  preparation  of  overseas  parcels  ad- 
vises that  ends  of  wooden  boxes  be  not  less  than  %  inch 
thick,  and  sides  and  bottom  5/16  inch  thickness  as  a 
minimum,  all  wood  to  be  dressed  on  both  sides.  Cement 
coated  nails  should  be  used  when  boxes  are  closed  by 
nails,  the  three-penny  size  being  advised. 

Special  regulations  apply  to  shipment  of  articles  made 
of  celluloid  when  they  are  dispatched  to  a  number  of 
foreign  countries  and  probably  should  apply  in  the  case 
of  all  shipments  of  such  articles.  In  general,  the  regula- 
tions provide  that  celluloid  or  articles  made  of  celluloid, 
must  be  packed  in  strong  wooden  boxes  and  the  parcel 
itself  must  be  labeled  celluloid  in  large  plain  black  letters. 

Fibre  and  Straw  Board  Containers.— The  very  defi- 
nite and  precise  instructions  issued  by  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  for  the  construction  of  fibre  and 
strawboard  containers,  may  very  well  be  taken  as  a 
model  for  such  containers,  when  applied  to  shipments  of 
parcel  post  packages  overseas,  even  though  the  original 
instructions  were  designed  to  apply  solely  to  domestic 
shipments  of  inflammable  liquids.  These  specifications 
are,  it  is  true,  very  exacting,  but,  as  has  been  repeatedly 


FOREIGN  PARCEL  POST  SHIPMENTS     699 

emphasized  in  these  pages,  too  much  thought  and  care 
cannot  be  devoted  to  the  problem  of  delivering  merchan- 
dise in  safe  and  sound  condition  into  the  hands  of  cur 
customers  in  other  countries.  Here  follow  extracts  from 
the  regulations  referred  to  which  may  be  found  in  full, 
with  further  details,  in  the  official  publications  of  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission. 

**The  inside  containers  must  be  securely  closed  in 
such  manner  as  to  prevent  leakage  of  the  liquid  during 
transit. 

**Each  inside  container  must  be  wrapped  separately 
in  single-faced  corrugated  strawboard  wrappers.  If  the 
inside  containers  exceed  %  pint  capacity  each,  they  must 
also  be  separated  by  double-faced  corrugated  strawboard 
partitions  or  packed  separately  in  double-faced  corru- 
gated strawboard  cartons  or  boxes;  provided,  that  con- 
tainers of  not  more  than  one  ounce  capacity  each,  packed 
in  wooden  boxes  or  double-faced  strawboard  cartons  and 
cushioned  when  necessary  to  prevent  breakage,  may  be 
packed  in  outside  cases  without  the  wrappers  or  parti- 
tions prescribed  above. 

"^^  Fibre  board  or  pulpboard  used  in  making  fibre 
board  or  pulpboard  cases  must  be  3-ply  or  more,  all  plies 
firmly  glued  together,  the  outer  ply  waterproofed,  and 
no  single  ply  less  than  0.02  inch  in  thickness.  Solid  fibre 
millboard  used  in  making  cases  must  be  composed  of  not 
less  than  50  per  cent  of  sulphite  fibre  and  must  be  water- 
proofed throughout. 

**When  the  glued  ply  fibre  board  or  pulpboard  used 
in  making  cases  is  not  less  than  0.10  inch  in  thickness, 
having  a  resistance  of  not  less  than  275  pounds  to  the 
square  inch,  Mullen  test,  and  an  inner  mantle  of  glued 
ply  fibre  board  or  pulpboard  is  arranged  and  constructed 
to  closely  fit  inside  the  case,  this  mantle  having  a  resist- 
ance of  not  less  than  175  pounds  to  the  square  inch, 
Mullen  test,  the  combined  capacity  of  all  containers  in 
the  case  must  not  exceed  6  quarts. 

^'The  mantle  shall  be  made  in  one  piece  of  glued  ply 
fibre   board   or  pulpboard   or   double-faced   corrugated 


700  EXPORT  PACKING 

strawboard,  and  shall  be  accurately  fitted  to  the  inside 
of  the  container  with  a  close-fitting  edge  but  arranged 
longitudinally  along  the  center  of  one  of  the  sides  (not 
heads)  of  the  cases.  This  flush  edge  butt  to  be  located 
approximately  midway  between  the  top  and  bottom  edges 
of  said  side  of  case. 

**When  the  solid  fibre  millboard,  composed  of  not  less 
than  50  per  cent  sulphite  fibre  used  in  making  cases  is 
not  less  than  0.08  inch  in  thickness,  having  a  resistance 
of  not  less  than  320  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  Mullen 
test,  the  combined  capacity  of  all  containers  in  the  case 
must  not  exceed  six  quarts ;  provided,  however,  that  the 
two  ends  shall  consist  of  scored  and  flanged  solid  fibre 
millboard  not  less  than  0.08  inch  in  thickness,  having  a 
resistance  of  not  less  than  320  pounds  to  the  square  inch, 
Mullen  test,  and  each  of  these  heads  or  ends  shall  be 
reenforced  by  a  straight,  unflanged  piece  of  solid  fibre 
board  of  the  same  thickness  and  strength  of  the  heads  or 
ends.  The  reenf orcing  board  shall  be  secured  to  the  case 
ends  by  metal  stitching  around  the  edges  and  through  the 
center,  spaced  not  more  than  3  inches  apart. 

**A11  cases  constructed  of  solid  fibre  millboard  which 
is  composed  of  not  less  than  50  per  cent  sulphite  fibre, 
that  contain  more  than  a  total  of  6  quarts,  shall  have 
placed  transversely  in  the  center  of  their  length  a  dia- 
phragm or  division  with  scored  and  flanged  connection  to 
the  sides,  top  and  bottom  of  said  case.  This  intermediate 
transverse  diaphragm  shall  be  composed  of  solid  fibre 
millboard  not  less  than  0.08  inch  in  thickness,  having  a 
resistance  of  not  less  than  320  pounds  to  the  square  inch, 
Mullen  test. 

^ '  The  heads  of  all  glued  ply  fibre  board  or  pulpboard 
cases  must  be  formed  of  four  laps  of  length  within  % 
inch  of  short  dimension  of  head.  When  the  short  dimen- 
sion of  head  is  greater  than  one-half  of  the  long  dimen- 
sion, one  of  the  short  dimension  laps  must  be  cut  at 
center  of  case,  and  one  of  the  long  dimension  laps  must 
be  scored  in  the  center  to  bend  over  the  shortened  lap. 

*  *  Cases  constructed  of  glued  ply  fibre  board  or  pulp- 


FOREIGN  PARCEL  POST  SHIPMENTS     701 

board  or  of  solid  fibre  millboard  composed  of  not  less 
than  50  per  cent  sulphite  fibre  must  be  creased,  not  cut, 
to  produce  a  reenforcing  fillet  on  the  inner  side  of  fold. 
This  requirement  will  apply  alike  to  flanged  ends  and 
flanged  intermediate  transverse  diaphragms  as  well  as  to 
the  sirje  members. 

**Tlie  side  lap  of  glued  ply  fibre  board  or  pulpboard 
cases  must  be  at  least  IV2  inches  wide,  double  stitched, 
or  giued  and  stitched,  with  flat  wire  not  less  than  %  inch 
wide  and  of  suitable  thickness,  with  stitches  spaced  not 
more  than  2i/^  inches  apart.  Machine  used  must  be 
capable  of  driving  the  wire  through  the  fibre  board  so 
that  the  stitching,  when  completed,  will  be  perfect. 

**  Cases  constructed  of  solid  fibre  board  composed  of 
not  less  than  50  per  cent  sulphite  fibre  where  the  total 
contents  do  not  exceed  6  quarts  shall  have  the  side  lap 
not  less  than.  1  inch  wide,  single  stitched  with  flat  wire 
not  less  than  %  inch  wide  and  of  suitable  thickness,  with 
stitches  spaced  not  more  than  IV2  inches  apart.  Machine 
used  must  be  capable  of  driving  the  wire  through  the 
solid  fibre  millboard  so  that  the  stitching,  when  com- 
pleted, will  be  perfect.  The  heads  of  all  glued  ply  fibre 
board  or  pulpboard  cases  must  be  closed  with  animal  glue 
coated  on  the  entire  contact  surfaces. 

**  Cases  constructed  of  solid  fibre  millboard  composed 
of  not  less  than  50  per  cent  sulphite  fibre  must  have  heads 
flanged  out,  both  flanges  being  stitched  to  the  case,  sides, 
top,  and  bottom,  with  flat  wire  not  less  than  %  inch  wide 
and  of  suitable  thickness  spaced  not  more  than  1%  inches 
apart.  The  width  of  flanges  on  heads  and  diaphragms 
must  be  not  less  than  1  inch,  including  fillet. 

*^  Rivets,  if  equal  or  superior  in  strength  to  the  wire 
stitching,  may  be  used. 

**  Double-faced  corrugated  strawboard  used  in  making 
double-faced  strawboard  cases,  must  be  of  corrugated 
strawboard,  with  inner  and  outer  facings  of  fibre  board 
or  pulpboard,  both  facings  having  proper  bending  quali- 
ties, firmly  glued  to  the  corrugated  sheet,  with  the  outer 
facings  waterproofed. 


702  EXPORT  PACKING 

**When  the  outer  facing  of  the  double-faced  corru- 
gated strawboard  is  not  less  than  0.018  inch  in  thickness, 
having  a  resistance  of  not  less  than  85  pounds  to  the 
square  inch,  Mullen  test,  and  the  inner  facing  is  not  less 
than  0.018  inch  in  thickness,  having  a  resistance  of  not 
less  than  85  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  Mullen  test,  the 
combined  board  having  a  resistance  of  not  less  than  200 
pounds  to  the  square  inch,  Mullen  test,  and  an  inner 
mantle  of  double-faced  corrugated  strawboard  is  ar- 
ranged and  constructed  to  closely  fit  inside  the  case,  this 
mantle  having  a  resistance  of  not  less  than  175  pounds 
to  the  square  inch,  Mullen  test,  the  combined  capacity  of 
all  containers  in  the  case  must  not  exceed  6  quarts. 

**The  mantle  shall  be  made  in  one  piece  of  double- 
faced  corrugated  strawboard,  and  shall  be  accurately 
fitted  to  the  inside  of  the  container,  with  a  close  fitting 
edge  butt  arranged  longitudinally  along  the  center  of 
one  of  the  sides  (not  heads)  of  the  case.  This  flush  edge 
butt  to  be  located  approximately  midway  between  the  top 
and  bottom  edges  of  said  side  of  case. 

**Each  double-faced  corrugated  strawboard  case  shall 
be  made  out  of  one  piece  of  material.  The  edge  connec- 
tion of  the  side  to  the  end  must  be  close  fitting  and  be 
secured  by  a  single  cloth  or  sealing  strip  not  less  than  2 
inches  in  width  and  having  a  resistance  of  not  less  than 
120  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  Mullen  test,  extending  the 
entire  length  of  the  seam  and  secured  by  animal  glue  to 
the  box.  Double  cloth  sealing  strips  may  be  used  if  the 
inner  strip  is  made  not  less  than  IVo  inches  wide  and  the 
outer  strip  not  less  than  2i/^  inches  wide,  each  cloth 
having  a  resistance  of  not  less  than  60  pounds  to  the 
square  inch,  Mullen  test,  each  thickness  extending  the 
entire  length  of  the  seam,  the  inner  being  firmly  glued  to 
the  case,  and  the  outer  being  efficiently  and  firmly  glued 
to  the  inner  cloth  and  to  the  case. 

**The  heads  of  all  double-faced  corrugated  straw- 
board  cases  containing  a  total  of  not  more  than  4  quarts, 
must  be  formed  with  four  flaps,  each  pair  of  flaps  but- 
ting at  approximately  the  center  line  of  the  head.    Cases 


FOREIGN  PARCEL  POST  SHIPMENTS     703 

containing  a  total  of  more  than  4  quarts,  but  not  more 
than  6  quarts,  must  have  the  two  inner  flaps  butt  at  the 
center  line  of  the  head  and  the  two  outer  flaps  each 
cover  the  entire  head.  Cases  containing  a  total  of  more 
than  6  quarts,  but  not  more  than  8  quarts,  must  have  both 
inner  and  outer  flaps  cover  the  entire  area  of  the  head; 
provided  that  cases  containing  a  total  of  more  than  4 
quarts,  but  not  more  than  8  quarts,  may  consist  of  two 
complete  double-faced  corrugated  strawboard  cases,  one 
closely  fitted  inside  the  other,  the  inner  case  made  of 
double-faced  corrugated  strawboard  having  a  resistance 
of  not  less  than  175  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  Mullen 
test,  and  the  outer  case  made  of  double-faced  corrugated 
strawboard  having  a  resistance  of  not  less  than  200 
pounds  to  the  square  inch,  Mullen  test,  fully  complying 
with  these  requirements  and  specifications,  and  with  the 
heads  of  each  case  formed  with  four  flaps,  each  pair  of 
flaps  butting  at  the  center  line  of  the  head. 

* '  Heads  must  be  closed  with  animal  glue  coated  on  the 
entire  contact  surface. 

'*A  corrugated  strawboard  case  of  the  triple  slide 
telescope  type  is  approved  for  the  transportation  of 
inflammable  liquids  in  quantity  not  exceeding  4  quarts 
in  one  outside  container  and  must  be  constructed  as 
follows : 

*  ^  Each  case  shall  be  of  the  triple  slide  telescope  type, 
each  slide  being  made  of  one  piece  material  with  seams 
and  closing  edges  secured  by  single  cloth  sealing  strips 
not  less  than  2  inches  in  width,  and  having  a  resistance  of 
not  less  than  120  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  Mullen  test, 
extending  the  entire  length  of  the  seam,  and  secured  by 
animal  glue  to  the  box.  Double  cloth  sealing  strips  may 
be  used  if  the  inner  strip  is  made  not  less  than  11/2  inches 
wide  and  the  outer  strip  not  less  than  2y2  inches  wide, 
each  cloth  having  a  resistance  of  not  less  than  60  pounds 
to  the  square  inch,  Mullen  test,  each  thickness  extending 
the  entire  length  of  the  seam,  the  inner  being  firmly  glued 
to  the  case  and  the  outer  being  efficiently  and  perma- 
nently glued  to  the  inner  cloth  and  to  the  case. 


704  EXPORT  PAi 

**The  double-faced  corrugated  strawboard  used  must 
have  both  facings  not  less  than  0.016  inch  in  thickness 
having  a  resistance  of  not  less  than  75  pounds  to  the 
square  inch,  Mullen  test,  the  combined  board  having  a 
resistance  of  not  less  than  175  pounds  to  the  square  inch, 
Mullen  test.  Both  facings  must  have  proper  bending 
quality  and  be  firmly  glued  to  the  corrugated  sheet.  The 
outer  facing  must  be  waterproofed.'* 

Boxes  of  fibre  board,  pulp  board,  solid  mill  board  and 
corrugated  strawboard,  may  not  only  be  of  the  described 
one  piece  construction  but  may  be  of  two  piece  or  three 
piece  construction,  provided  the  material  used  together 
with  the  use  of  an  inside  lining  or  mantle  conforms  to 
the  specifications  above  given  as  to  strength  and  thick- 
ness. Construction  may  be  of  any  of  the  usually  accepted 
methods,  but  the  joints  must  be  made  by  tape,  stitching 
and  gluing  as  provided  above. 

Bags.— Possibly  the  materials  most  commonly 
shipped  by  parcel  post  in  bags  are  those  in  powder  form 
and  the  great  desideratum  therefore  is  to  prevent  the 
sifting  of  the  contents.  The  cloth,  of  whatever  nature, 
must  be  closely  woven,  of  a  strength  not  less  than  200 
pounds  to  the  square  inch,  Mullen  test. 

The  largest  manufacturer  in  the  United  States  of 
photographic  goods  states  that  cameras  by  parcel  post 
are  always  packed  in  heavy  double  strawboard  boxes 
wrapped  in  strong  waterproof  bags. 

Bundles  in  the  Parcel  Post.— If  contents  of  a  parcel 
post  bundle  are  such  as  not  necessarily  to  require  a 
stiff  outside  container,  they  may  be  forwarded  in  a 
package  wrapped  either  with  burlap,  Osnaburg,  sheeting, 
a  combination  of  paper  and  cloth,  two  or  more  thick- 
nesses of  heavy  waterproof  kraft  paper  weighing  not 
less  than  what  is  known  as  No.  60  or  duplex  waterproof 
wrapping  paper  strengthened  with  either  cords  or  wire, 
if  the  instructions  of  the  American  Red  Cross  are  to  be 
followed.  Whatever  the  wrapping  material  may  be  it 
should  have  a  resistance  of  at  least  120  pounds  per  square 
inch,  Mullen  test.     The  outside  coyer  should  be  folded 


FOREIGN  PARCEL  POST  SHIPMENTS     705 

twice  before  closing  at  the  top  and  fiave  the  ends  folded 
down  and  across,  the  pointed  end  so  formed  being  folded 
over  and  then  up  and  tightly  tied  with  twine  fastened 
with  a  loop  knot.  A  New  York  concern  doing  a  large  mail 
order  business  by  parcel  post  states  that  it  always  uses 
boxes  made  of  fibre  board,  wrapped  in  a  cloth  lined 
tarred  coating  material  weighing  70  to  80  pounds  per 
ream,  which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  tear. 

Liquids  and  Semi-Liquids  in  the  Mails.— The  United 
States  regulations  provide  that  liquids,  oil,  paste,  salves 
and  other  articles  easily  liquefiable,  are  admitted  to  the 
parcel  post  mails  of  many  countries  (for  exceptions  see 
Official  Postal  Guide),  provided  they  are  packed  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  regulations  prescribed  for  the  admis- 
sion of  such  substances  to  the  United  States  parcel  post 
mails.  More  detailed  and  specific  instructions  applying 
to  foreign  parcel  post  mails  are  those  issued  by  the 
Belgian  government  which  have  been  translated  as 
follows : 

**  Liquids,  oils,  greases,  and  other  articles  easily  lique- 
fiable must  fulfill  the  following  conditions : 

*^If  they  are  in  strong  glass  bottles  containing  4 
ounces  (113.40  gr.)  or  less,  the  total  quantity  sent  in  a 
package  can  not  exceed  24  ounces  (680.39  gr.),  liquid 
measure.  Each  bottle  must  be  wrapped  in  paper  or  some 
absorbent  substance,  and  then  the  whole  placed  in  a  card- 
board box,  or  in  a  box  of  similar  material,  and  packed  in 
a  receptacle  or  cardboard  of  good  quality  corrugated  on 
both  sides.  The  corners  of  the  receptacle  must  be  her- 
metically closed  and  tied  with  string  in  a  manner  to  pre- 
vent leakage  of  the  liquids  in  case  the  container  is  broken, 
and  the  entire  package  must  be  wrapped  in  strong  paper 
and  tied  with  string.  Bottles  containing  a  maximum  of 
4  ounces  of  liquid  (113.40  gr.)  may  he  packed  as  outlined 
in  the  next  two  paragraphs.  . 

**In  the  case  of  glass  bottle^,  holdir^  more  than  4 
ounces  (113.40  gr.)  the  total  quantity  sent  in  a  package 
must  not  exceed  16  ounces  (453.69  gr.)  liquid  measure. 
The  bottles  must  be  very  solid  and  inclosed  in  a  block  or 


706  EXPORT  PACKING 

tube  of  metal,  wood,  cardboard,  or  some  material;  and 
between  the  bottle  and  the  tube  or  the  block  must  be 
placed  a  certain  quantity  of  cotton  felt,  or  some  other 
absorbent  material.  The  block  or  tube,  if  it  be  of  wood 
or  cardboard,  must  have  a  thickness  of  at  least  3  milli- 
meters for  bottles  holding  8  ounces  (226.80  gr.)  at  the 
most,  and  of  at  least  5  millimeters  for  bottles  holding 
more  than  8  ounces.  The  block  or  tube  must  be  rendered 
waterproof  by  the  application,  on  the  inside,  of  parafiBn 
or  of  some  other  suitable  substance,  and  must  be  closed 
with  a  stopper  so  threaded  that  it  will  be  necessary  to 
give  it  at  least  a  turn  and  a  half  in  order  to  remove  it. 
The  cover  must  be  provided  with  a  washer,  so  that  the 
liquid  can  not  escape,  should  the  bottle  be  broken.  A 
number  of  bottles  separately  packed  according  to  the 
foregoing  instructions  can  be  put  in  one  package,  pro- 
vided the  maximum  weight  and  dimensions  prescribed 
by  these  rules  are  not  exceeded. 

**  Bottles  containing  liquids  can  also  be  packed  in 
solid  receptacles  well  closed  with  wood,  metal,  or  water- 
proof corrugated  cardboard.  A  space  must  be  left 
around  the  bottles  and  filled  with  bran,  sawdust,  or  any 
other  absorbent  material  in  a  sufficient  quantity  to  absorb 
all  the  liquid  should  the  bottle  be  broken. 

*^When  the  liquid  is  in  a  metal  receptacle,  the  recep- 
tacle must  be  suitably  sealed  and  put  in  a  box. ' ' 

Watches  by  Parcel  Post.— Packages  of  watches 
shipped  by  parcel  post  would  seem  to  be  particularly  sub- 
ject to  danger  from  pilfering,  especially  as  the  post 
office  must  be  able  readily  to  inspect  the  contents  and  in 
consequence  the  packages  are  usually  sent  unsealed.  A 
large  manufacturer  of  watches  believes  that  his  aston- 
ishingly small  loss  by  pilfering  is  due  to  no  small  extent 
to  the  fact  that  his  packages  are  relatively  inconspicuous. 
If  the  packages  were  clustered  with  red  wax  the  loss 
would  doubtless  be  much  greater.  Watches  shipped  by 
parcel  post  are  packed  in  standard  containers  made  for 
the  purpose  of  heavy  corrugated  paper  in  the  manner  of 
folding  boxes.    One  large  shipper  writes :  ' '  Our  watches 


Courtesy   of   Waltham   Watch   Co. 

Watch  Cases  for  Parcel  Post  Shipment. 

Watches  are  first  packed  in  individual  boxes  uhich  are  placed  in  cartons. 
Cartons  are  vorapped  in  heavy,  high-grade  oil  cloth,  and  then  in  heavy  wrapping 
paper. 


Courtesy  o/  Victor  Talking  Machine  Co. 
Phonograph  Records  Packed  for  Parcel  Post  Shipment. 

Photograph  shows  a  single  record  in  envelope,  the  required  number  of- 
records  in  waxed  paper,  an  empty  fibre  board  container  and  container  corded 
and  marked  for  shipment. 

707 


708  EXPORT  PACKING 

are  first  placed  in  individual  boxes  so  wrapped  with 
tissue  paper  that  there  is  no  play  in  the  box,  or  they  lie 
in  a  nest  in  the  box  which  prevents  the  watch  from  bang- 
ing against  the  side  of  the  box.  The  individual  boxes 
are  then  placed  in  cartons  holding  12  each,  and  the  car- 
tons are  wrapped  in  corrugated  paper  around  which  is 
placed  a  tar  lined  paper  which  is  impervious  to  moisture, 
and  then  there  is  a  final  layer  of  plain  paper  tied  with 
heavy  twine.'' 

Another  large  watch  manufacturer  states  in  reference 
to  shipments  of  watches  by  parcel  post:  **Our  watch 
movements  and  cased  watches  are  packed  as  follows :  The 
movements  in  tin  containers  and  the  cased  watches  in 
cardboard  containers,  packed  so  many  to  a  package, 
depending  upon  the  size  of  the  watches,  the  average  pack- 
age weighing  not  more  than  11  pounds.  Of  course,  four  to 
five  pounds  of  this  amount  are  included  in  the  weight  of 
the  packing  material  of  the  container.  The  merchandise 
is  solidly  and  safely  packed  with  a  wadding  of  tissue 
paper,  the  tissue  paper  being  laid  in  the  bottom  of  the 
box,  the  merchandise  laid  on  that,  further  tissue  paper 
carefully  wadded  on  all  sizes  so  that  the  merchandise  is 
entirely  surrounded  by  a  wadding  of  tissue  paper.  This 
package,  in  turn,  is  wrapped  in  heavy  quality  high  grade 
oilcloth  in  such  a  manner  that  water  will  not  enter  the 
cracks,  and  carefully  tied  with  string,  and  this  package 
again  packed  in  high  grade  heavy  quality  wrapping 
paper  and  tied  with  the  best  quality  of  heavy  hemp  cord. 
All  packages  are  shipped  unsealed.'* 

Hats  by  Parcel  Post.— A  large  exporter  of  hats 
writes :  **  During  the  war  and  even  up  to  the  present  time, 
on  account  of  irregular  freight  sailings  and  high  freight 
rates,  most  of  our  shipments  have  gone  forward  by  parcel 
post.  In  packing  for  parcel  post  the  packages  must,  of 
course,  conform  in  weight  and  size  with  the  regulations 
of  the  postal  law.  We  have  used  various  methods  of 
packing  for  parcel  post  but  the  one  we  are  now  using 
and  which  we  think  gives  the  best  results  is  as  follows : 

**The  round  pasteboard  carton  containing  six  hats 


FOREIGN  PARCEL  POST  SHIPMENTS     709 

is  placed  in  a  square  corrugated  carton  and  this  is  placed 
in  another  corrugated  carton,  and  then  wrapped  in  heavy 
wrapping  paper  and  securely  tied  with  strong  twine. 

"In  shipping  to  Venezuela,  where  the  difficulties  of 
transportation  are  very  great,  we  ship  in  oilcloth  bags. 
In  this  instance,  the  hats  are  not  packed  in  round  cartons 
but  instead  a  dozen  or  more  hats  are  nested  together  and 
placed  in  the  bag  which  is  then  sewed  and  sealed.  In 
some  instances  w^e  have  shipped  to  Venezuela  in  tin  cans 
but  this  method  is  too  expensive. '* 

Fountain  Pens  by  Parcel  Post.— Perhaps  the  largest 
exporter  of  fountain  pens  states  that  where  single  pens 
are  shipped,  the  pen  is  packed  in  the  box  in  which  it  is 
regularly  sold  in  this  country  and  then  enclosed  in  a 
strong  cardboard  export  box,  wrapped  in  waterproof 
paper  and  strongly  tied  with  cord.  Shipments  of  quanti- 
ties of  pens  at  a  time  are  packed  in  tough  cardboard 
boxes  especially  prepared  of  high  grade  material  with 
strong  resistance.  The  inside  packages  included  within 
the  outside  container  are  of  special  character,  already 
described  in  this  chapter  as  ** outlook  boxes,''  all  of  which 
are  sealed  and  each  one  bears  the  inscription,  **  Please 

count  before  breaking  seal.     This  box  contains 

pens,  packed  by ,  examined  by ,  caps  attached 

regular ,  sterling ,  gold  filled " 

Talking  Machine  Records.— Disk  records  for  talking 
machines  are  frequently  forwarded  by  foreign  parcel 
post.  Usually  records  are  packed  singly  in  envelopes 
and  the  required  number  of  enveloped  records  wrapped 
in  waxed  paper,  the  entire  shipment  being  so  divided  that 
no  single  complete  box  will  weigh  more  than  11  pounds. 
The  packing  of  one  of  the  most  important  manufacturers 
in  this  line  is  well  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  photo- 
graph (see  page  707).  This  company  explains  that  the 
fibre  board  container  is  constructed  of  100  point  fibre 
board  with  an  average  resistance  of  285  pounds  to  the 
square  inch,  "Mullen  Test."  The  outside  liner  is  of 
waterproof  material.  The  box  is  reenf  orced  with  a  piece 
of  strong  linen  tape  which  is  glued  to  the  outside,  thus 


710  EXPORT  PACKING 

taking  much  of  the  strain  that  occurs  at  the  corners 
should  the  box  be  dropped.  There  are  four  flaps,  top  and 
bottom,  each  pair  meeting  completely  at  the  center  of  the 
box.  The  bottom  flaps  are  glued,  the  top  must  be  left 
open  for  postal  inspection. 

The  flaps  of  this  box  are  tied  down  with  a  good  quality 
of  jute  twine.  The  markings  are  put  on  with  stencil  and 
marking  ink  and  are  afterward  sprayed  with  a  fixative  to 
prevent  smearing  or  rubbing.  In  addition  to  the  protec- 
tion afforded  by  the  top  and  bottom  flaps,  pieces  of 
double  faced  corrugated  board  are  used  between  the 
package  of  records  and  the  box.  Any  space  remaining  is 
filled  completely  with  these  corrugated  boards. 

The  Combination  Package.— The  Advisory  Com- 
mittee on  International  Parcel  Post  defines  the  combina- 
tion package  as  a  ^'package  which  consists  of  two  parts 
firmly  attached  together,  both  parts  bearing  the  same 
address,  one  part  being  a  sealed  envelope  containing  the 
communication,  fully  prepaid  at  the  letter  rate  of  post- 
age; the  other  being  an  unsealed  package  containing 
samples  of  merchandise  or  printed  matter  fully  prepaid 
at  the  appropriate  rate  of  postage.''  All  of  which  means 
that  it  is  possible  to  send  together  a  catalog  and  a  letter 
referring  thereto,  or  a  lot  of  samples  and  a  correspond- 
ing letter,  so  that  letter  and  package  will  reach  destina- 
tion at  the  same  time.  The  letter  only  pays  first  class 
rates.  These  combination  packages  may  be  sent  at  pres- 
ent to  some  fifteen  countries. 

The  combination  package  may  be  in  the  form  of  an 
envelope  with  a  binding  piece  for  the  letter,  or  in  the 
form  of  a  combined  sack  and  envelope,  and  obviates  the 
old  and  costly  method  of  sending  catalogs  and  samples 
first  class  in  order  to  assure  their  arrival  at  the  same 
time  as  a  letter  referring  to  them.  This  matter  should 
be  fully  investigated  by  exporters. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Abercromhie,  David  T 162 

Abyssinia  238 

Acajutla,   Salvador    296 

Acetic  acid   584 

Adelaide,  Australia  240 

Advertising    matter    on    cases, 
16,   43,   60,    152,    226,   483, 

493,   552,   557 

Aeroplanes   641,  642 

Africa 239 

Agricultural  Machinery — 
Disassembling  .  .377,'  379,  383,  384 

Electric  light  plants   386 

General  considerations  ..369,  370 

Hand   plows    403 

Instruction  sheets  ..378,  383,  392 

Plows    374 

Mowing  and   harvesting   ma- 
chines       378 

Threshing  machines 383 

Tractors    389 

Windmills 385 

Albania    238 

Alexandria,   Egypt 261 

Algeria     238 

Amapala,    Honduras    217,  267 

American   Forestry    193 

American    Bed    Cross    ....698,  704 
American  Hussion   Chamber  of 

Commerce     295 

Amsterdam,  Holland    266 

Antigua    250 

Antofagasta,    Chile    246,  251 

Antwerp,  Belgium 245 

Arabia 238 

Argentina    239 

Arica,   Chile    246 

Armenia  295 

Aruba   260 

Asuncion,  Paraguay    287 

Athens,  Greece  264 

Australia  ..240,  241,  242,  243,  244 

AuMria 245 

Automobiles — 

Band  iron    321 

Commercial  cars    317,  323 

Disassembling  .310,  314,  322,  330 

71 


PAGB 

A  utomobiles — continued 

Dismantling   313,  322 

General  considerations    304 

Ideal  case   313 

Importance   of   base  of   case 

304,  310 

Knocked-down  cars   306 

Lining  of  case 317,  318,  322 

Loose  parts 313,  314 

Packing  chassis    314,   322 

Packing  on   sides   310,  322 

Protection  of  car   317,  323 

Reducing  size  of  case   ..310,  313 

Rust  prevention    318 

Skids 305 

Standardized   cases    306 

Stenciling     321 

Timber  used   

310,  313,  321,  322 

Touring  cars  ..305,  306,  309,  310 
Automobile  lighting  apparatus  422 
Automobile  starting  apparatus  422 
Automobile  tires.    See  Tires. 


Bags — 

Double  bags   595 

For  flour    596 

General    considerations    593,    594 

Marking     597 

Material  for   594 

Misuse   of    596 

Parcel  post   704 

Sewing    595 

Sifting    594,   595 

Bahama  Islands 245 

Bahia   Blanca,  Argentina   239 

Bales — 

Baling  department 171 

Baling    press    78,    79,  80 

Banding   81,  82,  151 

Compression     

80,  81,   169,   170,   172,   175 

Ears  of    82,  151,  176 

Economies  of    

77,  164,  165,  166,  169 

Folding  goods 150,  172 

1 


712 


INDEX 


Bales — continued 

For  Colombia  256 

"Forming    Box"    78 

Goods  suitable  for    

77,   163,    164,    176 

How  to   make    78,  175 

Insurance    against    hooks    . .     83 

Lining    81,    150,  170 

Outside  covering 81,  150,  170 

Pilfering    175 

Protection  against  hooks   ...     82 

Sewing    151 

Size  of   81,  149,  170 

Stenciling    15,    152,  175 

Waterproofing    83,    84,  150 

Weight   of    81,  256 

Baling  Press    78,   79,     80 

Ball  bearings   421 

Banding  iron.     See  Strapping. 

Barbados    250 

Barbed  Wire 607 

Barranquilla,    Colombia    256 

''Barrel  and  Box''    116 

Barrels — 

Acetic  acid   584 

Bolts    582,  583 

Boric  acid   583 

Box   strapping    582 

Cement  ..572,  575,  576,  577,  578 

Chain    581 

China    565 

Flake  graphite   588 

Flour    571,  572 

General    considerations     .... 
193,    194,    199,    562,    563, 

564,  565 

Glassware    565,  584,  587 

Glucose  584 

Graphite  crucibles   588 

Graphite  facings    588 

Hardware     583 

Incandescent    lamps    587 

Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion  specifications    

588,  589,  590,  591,  592 

Lard   570 

Lath  nails  581 

Leakage 564,  565 

Oils   209,  564,  570,  571 

'  Packing    605 

Packinghouse  products 

565,  566,  569,  570 

Pickled  meat  570 

Plaster    584 

Rosin    584 

Sifting     565 

Soda  ash   584 


Barrels — continued 

Spring   steel    582 

Tobacco    584 

Wire    581 

Wire    nails    578 

Bath  tubs   669,  670,  671 

Battens    72,  104 

Batum 295 

Belgium 245,  705 

Bejize,   British   Honduras    ....   249 

Beltran,  Colombia   257 

Bermuda    246 

Bicycles     672,  675 

Bill  of  lading  ..30,  31,  46,  59,  227 

Billiard  tables    511 

Biscuits    532 

Blaclc  Sea 287 

Bluefields,  Nicaragua   285 

Bogota,  Colombia   256,  257 

Bogus  paper   61 

Bolivia    246,   247,   473,  478 

Bolts    ..65,   66,    146,   147,   429,  582 

Bombay,    India    268 

Bonaire     260 

Book    cloths    481 

Boric    acid    583 

Bottles    443 

Boxes — 

Branding    108 

Cleats    

50,  117,  118,  122,  125,  133, 

134 

Construction   of    

50,  110,  113,  116,  130,  184 

Corner    posts     89 

Cribbing  supports    89 

Defects  of    53,  189 

Hardwoods    54 

Ideal    54,     55 

Joining    117,  132 

Lumber    

53,  54,  116,  127,  128,  129, 

130,    131,    190,  191 

*' Lock-Cornered"    138 

Marking.     See  "Marking." 
Machinery.        See      chapters 
XIII,  XIV. 

Nailing     

...117,  123,  134,  135,  136,  137 

Partitions     101 

Screws 73,  74,     77 

Sealing    123,  143 

Shape  of  90,     91 

Size   and   weight   of    86,  124 

Skidding    ....109,    110,    113,  114 

Staples    118 

Step  joint   90 


INDEX 


713 


Boa;es— continued 

Strapping     

57,  58,  120,  121,  130,  139, 

140,  141 

Styles  of , 121,  125 

Surfacing   ....117,  122,  131,  132 
Waterproofing.       See    Water- 
proofing. 

Wire-bound    118 

Wire  strapping    107,  120 

See  various  chapters. 
Bracing — 

Cases     89 

Crates   67 

Machinery    102 

See  various  chapters. 

Branding    108 

Brazil   247,  248,  249,  679,  687 

Bric-d-brac     469 

Breakage    30 

Brisbane,  Australia^ 240 

British  East  Africa 249 

British  Guiana   249 

British  Honduras 249 

British   Somaliland    250 

British  West  Indies 250 

Buenaventura,    Colombia    256 

Buenos  Aires    . .  239,   246,   287,  481 

Bulgaria     251 

BuUy  Articles — 

Aeroplanes    641,  642 

Case    construction    627 

General  considerations   627 

Locomotives     

..629,   630,   633,   634,  635,  636 

Marine    engines    641 

Motor  boats   639,  640,  641 

Pilfering    629 

Eailway  ears    636,  639 

Sling  marks 628 

Waterproofing 628 

Bundles — 

Automobile   tires    600 

Banding   iron    608 

Barbed  wire    607 

Barrels   605 

Electrical  wire    608 

Furniture    598,  599 

Galvanized  wire   607 

General  considerations  ..597,  598 

Handles    603 

Hoops    603,  6'04 

Iron  safes   599 

Lumber    603,  604 

Marking     598 

Parcel  post   704 

Picture  mouldings   603 


Bundles — continued 

Shovels    600,  603 

Staves    603,    604,  605 

Steel    bars    605,  607 

Steel  sheets 607 

Steel  pipe 607 

Steel    wire    606,  607 

Tags  for  steel  goods   606 

Tying  of    598 

"Bureau   of   Insular  Affairs" 

266,  289 

Burma 211 

Burro    201,   239,   246,  288 

Butt  joint    131,  133 

Calcium  Carbide   616,  617 

Calcutta,    India    268,  272 

Callao,    Peru    288 

Camel   201,  238,  239,  240,  287 

Canada    202,  697 

Canned  goods,  38,  129,  519,  528,  531 

Caracas,   Venezuela    302 

Carbonic  acid  gas   618 

Carboys 618,  623,  624,  625 

Cartons — 

Cereals    558 

Confectionery 558,  559 

Dolls   560 

Economy    of    space    547,551 

General  considerations    

546,  547,  548,  551 

Lead  pencils   559 

Printing  inks    559 

Rubber   goods    554,557 

Shoes 551,  552,  553,  554,  557 

Toys    560 

Waterproof   case  linings    . . .  551 

Cash   registers    518 

Caspian  Sea    287 

Cast  iron    62,  426 

Caustic   soda    615,  616 

Caution  marks    

.  . .  -16,   60,   108,   109,  467,  660 

Ceiba,   Honduras    217 

Celluloid    698 

Cement  ....572,  575,  576,  577,  578 

Central  America    203,   216,  236 

Cereals    531,  558 

Cerro  de  Pasco   211 

Ceylon     268 

Chains    429,   581,  611 

Chandeliers    463 

Checking  goods 39 

Chemicals  211 

Chicken  wire 482,  484,  659 

Chile    212,  216,   246,  247 

China  254,  565 


714 


INDEX 


Ciudad  Bolivar,   Venezuela   . . .  302 

Cleats   

50,  57,  61,  62,  70,  117,  118, 
122,    125,    133,    134,    135,  148 

Climatic  conditions   

17,  201,  203,  234 

Colombia 

202,  203,  216,  254,  255,  256, 
257,  343,  386,  468,  473,  478, 
650,  680 

Colon,  Panama  287 

Combination  parcel  post  pack- 
age    710 

Combining  small  boxes    

643,    644,  645 

Confectionery    

452,    533,    534,    558,559 

*  *  Compression-on-edge  test "   . . 

184,  185 

Constantinople,  Turkey 298 

Constanza,  Eoumania 294 

Consular   invoice    46 

Containers.    See  Boxes. 

Coolie   254 

Cooperage    191,   193,  194 

Corinto,  Nicaragua   285 

Corner  posts    89,  348 

*  *  Comerwise-compression-test ' ' 

184,  185 

Costa  Bica 257 

Cottonseed  oil   570,  571 

Crackers     532 

Crates — 

Bolting  and  nailing  .  .  65,-  66,  146 

Center  of  gravity    147 

Cleats     70,  148 

Description   of 

...64,   125,   130,   143,   147,  149 

Joining   and   bracing    

66,  67,  68,  145 

Lumber  in,  64,  65,  143,   144,  145 

Machinery    90,  344,  347 

Scabbing 71,     72 

Screws 73,  74,     77 

Shape  of    91 

Skids    69,    72,    147,  148 

Strapping    72,  149 

' '  Three  Way  Corner  " 66 

Ventilating  95,     96 

Waterproofing.    See  "Water- 
proofing. ' ' 
See  various  chapters. 

Cresap,   A.   B 291 

Cribbing  supports    89 

Crockery     449 

Cuba    257,    258,  482 

Curasao    260 


PAGE 

Customers'  instructions    

7,    10,    18,  572 

Customs   duties,   18,    236.     See 
Chapter  X. 

Customs  regulations —    

Abyssinia  238 

Albania 238 

Algeria  238 

Arabia    238 

Armenia     295 

Australia  .240,  241,  242,  243,  244 

Austria 245 

Bahama   Islands    245,  250 

Belgium    245 

Bermuda    246 

Bolivia 246,  247 

Brazil    247,  248,  249 

British  East  Africa    249 

British  Guiana   249 

British  Honduras 249 

British   Somaliland    250 

British  West  Indies    250 

Bulgaria     251 

Canary    Islands    251 

Central    America    237 

Chile    251,    252,  253 

China   233,  254 

Colombia    254,    25.5,   256,  257 

Costa  Kica 257 

Cuba    257,  258 

Cyrenaica  297 

Denmark    258 

Dominican  Republic -258,  259,  260 

Dutch  East  Indies 260 

Dutch  Guiana  260 

Dutch  West  Indies   260 

Ecuador    261 

Egypt 261,  262 

Esthonia 295 

Finland    262 

France    262 

French  Guiana   263 

French   Indo-China    263 

French    Somaliland 263 

French  West  Indies   263 

Germany     264 

Greece     264 

Guatemala    265 

Haiti     ^66 

Hawaiian  Islands 266 

Holland    266 

Honduras 267 

India  ....268,  269,  270,  271,  272 

Italy    272 

Jamaica    273 

Japan    274 

Jugo-Slavia     274 


INDEX 


715 


PAGH 

Customs  regulations — continued 

Latvia    295 

Libya    297 

Lithuania 295 

Madagascar     275 

Madeira  Islands   275 

Mauritius     275 

Mexico    

275,    276,    277,    278,    279, 

280,    281,  282 

Need  of   studying    237 

New  Zealand  .  .  282,  283,  284,  285 

Nicaragua    285 

Norway 286 

Panama    286 

Paraguay   287 

Persia  287 

Peru    288 

Philippine    Islands    

....288,  289,  290,  291,  292 

Poland    292 

Porto   Kico    293 

Portugal     293 

Portuguese  East  Africa  (Mo- 
zambique)        293 

Portuguese  West  Africa  ....   294 
Republic  of  Azerbaijan   ....   295 

Republic    of    Georgia    295 

Reunion    294 

Roumania     294 

Russia     294 

Salvador 295 

Siam   296 

Siberia    236 

Spain    296 

Straits  Settlements   296 

Sweden     297 

Switzerland   297 

Tripoli    297 

Tunis    '298 

Turkey     233,  298 

Uganda     298 

Union   of    South    Africa    ...   299 
United  Kingdom  ...299,  300,  301 

Uruguay     301 

Variation   in    different   coun- 
tries    231,  232 

Venezuela     302 

Cut    glass    449 

Cuzco,    Peru    211 

Cyrenaica 297 

Danzig    292 

Denmarlc    258 

Desirade 263 

'* Diagonal-compression-test"    .   199 


''Diagonal-drop-test"     199 

Dire-Dana   238 

Djibouti,  French  Somaliland  . . 

238,  263 

Dolls   560 

Dominica    250 

Dominican  Bepublic  ..258,  259,  260 
Donkey.     See  Burro. 

''Drop    test"    184,  185 

Drugs.     See        Pharmaceutical 

products. 
Drums — 

Calcium  carbide 616,  617 

Caustic  soda 615,  616 

General  considerations   

613,    614,  615 

Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion Specifications   

618,    621,    622,  623 

Printers'  ink   617 

Sulphuric  acid    613 

War     Department     Specifica- 
tions       615 

Dutch  East  Indies    260 

Dutch  Guiana   260 

Dutch  West  Indies 260 

Duties.    See  Chapter  X.    Page 
231. 

Ears  on  hales 82,  151,  176 

Ecuador   261 

Egypt    261,  696 

Electric  fans 426 

Electric  light  plants   386 

Electric  motors   386,  429 

England.    See     United     King- 
dom. 

Eritrea   273 

Esthonia    295 

Excelsior    60,   61,   342,444 

Facatativa,  Colombia   257 

Finland 262 

Fitz  Gerald,  M.  C.    See  chapter 
IV. 

Flour   537,  538,  571,  572,  596 

"Footwear  Regulation  Act"  of 

New  Zealand   . . .  283,  284,  285 

Fountain  pens  694,  709 

Forest  Products  Laboratory — 

Barrels   199 

Boxes 184,  186 

Branches  of  the  work 180 

Experiments  in 50 

Furniture   494 

Lumber     190 

Origin  of  178 


716 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Forest  Products  Laboratory — cont. 
Service  to  business  .178,  179,  183 
Testing  methods    ..183,    184,  185 
Typical  examples  of  work    .   180 

Forks    417 

*  *  Forming  Box"   78 

Fragile  goods,  39,  60,  102,  103. 
See  also  Glass,  Glassware, 
etc. 

France    262 

Franck,  Harry  A 507 

Freemwitle,    Australia    240 

Freights — Weight  basis   29 

French  Guiana  263 

French  Indo-China    263 

French  Somaliland  238,  263 

French  West  Indies   263 

Furniture — 

Bales    502,  505 

Billiard  tables    511 

Bracing   501,  506 

Bundles 598 

Cases  and   crates    500,  506 

Criticisms  of   packing    

•     489,    490,  493 

Floor  lamps  . .  .r 511 

Forest    Products    Laboratory  494 

General  considerations   489 

Glass 502 

Knocked   down   furniture    . . 

495,  501 

Lining  of  cases  and  crates  . . 

501,    502,  506 

Manufacturing  for  export  . .  493 

Marking   505 

Metal  bedsteads 495 

Office  furniture   505,  506 

Packing  for  South  Africa  .  .   496 
Packing   for   South    America  499 

Phonographs    512,    513,514 

Pianos    507,   508,  511 

Eeduction  in  cubic  space    . .  499 

Steel    furniture    505 

Strapping    502,  505 

Talking  machines  .  .512,  513,  514 
Upholstered  furniture 506 

Galatz,  Roumania   294 

Geography,  6,  17,  19,  20,  49,  201,  234 

Georgetown,  British  Guiana   . .  249 

Germany    264 

Ghent,  Belgium    245 

Girardot,  Colombia   257 

Glass  containers.  See  Glass  and 

Glassware. 
Glass  and  Glassware — 

Barrels  565,  584,  587 


PAGE 

Glass  and  Glassware — continued 

Bottles    

..443,   444,   445,  446,   449,  452 

Chandeliers    463 

Confectionery    452 

Crockery 449 

Cut  glass 449 

Furniture     502 

General    considerations     .... 

433,    434,  437 

Incandescent  lamps   

...455,  456,  457,  458,  461,  587 

Lamp  chimneys 446 

Pharmaceutical   products    . . . 

450,  451 

Photographic   materials    468 

Eeflectors    464,  467 

Sheet  glass    ". 

437,  438,  439,  440,  443 

Writing  inks    452,  455 

Glucose  584 

Graphite  products 525,  588 

Gravity,  center  of  

108,    114,    147,    148,  628 

Great     Britain.       See     United 
Kingdom. 

Greece     264 

Grenada   250 

Guadeloupe  263,  264 

Guatemala   265 

Guayaquil,   Ecuador 261 


Haiti     266 

Hams    646 

Handles 417,  603 

Handles  of  webbing  for  boxes 

160,  161 

Hardware — 

Complaints    regarding    pack- 
ing     406,   407,  408 

Displaying    in    India    210 

General      considerations      of 

packing     406 

Miscellaneous   examples    ....   408 

Packing  of   saws    412,  413 

Packing  of   tools    411,  412 

Harris  Garrard 217 

Harvesting   machines    378 

Hats    677 

Havana,   Cuba    257 

Haivaiian  Islands    266 

Hazard  machine    183,  185 

Helsingfors,   Finland    262 

Hoes   417 

Hoisting  machinery    349,  350 

Holland    266 


INDEX 


717 


PAGE 

Honduras  

...202,  203,  217,  218,  267,  477 
Honolulu,  Hawaiian  Islands  . .  266 
Hooks,  protection  from,  on  bales 

82,  176 

Hoops     604 

Hops    539,  540 

Hosiery     481 

Hudnaco    211,  212 

Import  duties.  See  Customs 
regulations  as  affecting 
packing,  Chapter  X,  page 
231.  Also  specific  coun- 
tries. 

Incandescent    lamps    

..455,   456,   457,  458,   461,  587 

Incandescent   mantles    467 

India    

202,  203,  204,  207,  208,  209, 
210,    268,    269,    270,    271,  272 
"Indian  Textile  Journal"   ....   204 
Inks   ..540,  543,  544,  545,  559,  617 

Instruction  sheets    378 

Insurance   28,   29,   30,  40,     83 

*  *  Internal-pressure-test  '*    199 

Interstate    Commerce    Commis- 
sion— 
Barrel     containers     specifica- 
tions  ..588,  589,  590,  591,  592 

Carboy    specifications    

623,    624,  625 

Drums  specifications   

618,    621,    622,  623 

Fibre    and    strawboard    con- 
tainers     

698,  699,  700,  701,  702,  703,  704 
Steel    cylinder    specifications 

625,  626 

Invoice    39,     59 

Italy   ; 272 

Italian  Somaliland    273 

Jamaica     250,  273 

Japan   274 

Joining    ....90,   117,   122,   123,  132 
Jugo-Slavia     274 

Keqs.    See  Barrels. 

Knit  goods    481 

Knots    53,   116,   127,  191 

Knowlton,  H.  N.  See  Chapter 
III,  page  48. 

Labels    59,    528,  545 

La  Dorado,  Colombia 257 


La  Guaira,  Venezuela 302 

Lag  screws   113 

La  Libertad,  Salvador 296 

Lamp  chimneys 446 

Lamps     511 

La  Paz,   Bolivia    246 

La  Plata   239 

Lard    534,   537,  570,  646 

Lath    nails    581 

Latin- America    233,  235 

Latvia     295 

Lead  pencils   559 

Leakage  from  barrels 564 

Leather  ....657,  658,  659,  660,  663 

Leather    belting    660,663 

Leather,  patent 658,  659,  660 

Leeward  Islands 250 

Les  Saintes  263 

Libya    297 

* '  Linderman   Joint "    

122,  123,  131,  133 

Lining.     See    Waterproofing. 

Lithuania    295 

Llama   201,  246,  288 

Lock-Comer     138 

Locomotives     

..629,   630,   633,   634,  635,  636 
Lourengo   Marquez,   Portuguese 

East   Africa    293 

Lumber — 

Barrels    194,  197 

Crates   64,  65,  145 

Defects  of 53,  189 

Groups    123,  144,  192 

Hardwoods    54,  329 

Kind  to  use   ..53,   127,   190,  369 
Moisture  in,  53,  116,  144,  157,  190 

Nailing    55,  156 

Packing    604 

Size  of    53,     54 

Surfacing 117 

Thickness    128,  129 

Width  of    

..54,    116,    128,    129,    130,  131 
See  various  chapters. 

Machinery — 

Blocking    101,    341,  342 

Bracing    102,  341,  342 

Crates    for    90,  350 

Construction     of     cases     and 

crates    344,  347,  348 

Disassembling   

332,  333,  334,  337,  370,  374,  379 

Electric  light  plants 386 

Extra   heavy    machinery    . . .  353 

For  Colombia    343 


718 


INDEX 


Machinery — continued 

Hand  Plows 403 

Hoisting  machinery    ....  349,  350 

In  India 209 

Machine  tools   349 

Marking    * 337,  634 

Method  in  general  of  pack 


mg 


60 


Mining   39 

Mowing   and   harvesting   ma- 
chines       378 

Naked   shipments    610,  611 

Packing    list     341 

Partitions  in   cases    lOl 

Plows 374 

Printing   presses    

354,  355,  356,  359,  360 

Protecting  bright  parts  ..'96,     97 
Protection  from  moisture   . . 

.....92,    96,  341 

Protection  from  rust   

....62,  95,  337,  338,   341,  634 

Small  parts    103,   338,  341 

Stamping   634 

Steam  pumps 353 

Tags   337,  341,  634 

Threshing   machines    383 

Tractors  389 

Weight  of  cases    343 

Windmills    385 

Wire-stitching    machinery    . .   361 
Wire-working  machinery    .  . .   362 

Machine  tools   349 

Madagascar 275 

Madeira  Islands 275 

Magdalena  Biver,  Colombia   . .  257 

Manchuria   254 

Manila.    See  Philippine  Islands. 

Maracaibo,    Venezuela    302,  478 

Marie  Galante  Islands 263 

Marine  Engines   641 

Marking — 
Agree  with  invoice  and  bill  of 

lading  59 

Bags    597 

Bales    ...15,    152,  175 

Bundles 598 

Careless  marking 36 

Caution  marks   

16,    60,    108,    109,  467 

Center    of    gravity    108 

Concealed  by  advertising  mat- 
ter   16 

Contents  on  cases   40 

Errors  in    15,     45 

Importance  of 14,  44,  59,     85 

Leather 658 


Marking — continued 

Machinery     337, 

Marking   fluid    107, 

Naked  shipments   

Position  of    16,  59, 

Requisites  of    15,  45,  60, 

Sanitary    ware    

Second-hand    material    shows 

old   marks    

Size    of    

Sling  position    108, 

Small  shipments 

Steamship  instructions    

Stenciling  of  

16,  59,  108,   152, 

Tires     

Tractors   

See  different  chapters. 
See  various  countries. 

Martinique    263, 

Masica,  Honduras   

Mauritius     .• 

Maxwell  Eu   

Mayohamha,  Peru    

Melbourne,  Australia 

*  * Merchan dise     Marks     Acts," 

India  and  Ceylon  

268,  269,  270,  271, 

*' Merchandise  Marks  Act"  of 

United  Kingdom   

'' Merchandise  Marks  Laws"  of 

India    

"Merchandise  Marks  Manual" 

Mexico    

275,  276,  277,  278,  279,  280, 
281 

Miller,   H.   H. .' 

Mining  machinery   

Moisture — 

Absorbers  of  . . : 

In  lumber    53,  116,  157, 

Protection  from.    See  Water- 
proofing. 

Mollendo,  Peru   211, 

Mombasa,  British  East  Africa 

Montevideo,   Uruguay   

Motor   boats    639,640, 

Moving  picture  filjns   

Mowing  machines 

Mozambique    

Mule    

201,  217,  238,  239,  246,  268 
285,    287, 

Nails.    See  Nailing. 
Nailing — 

Boxes  


635 
666 
396 


264 
217 
275 
193 
212 
240 


272 

299' 

272 
272 


282 

278 

39 

209 
190 


246 
249 
287 
641 
678 
378 
293 


522 


117 


INDEX 


719 


PAGE 

Nailing — conti  nue  d 

Cement  coated  nails    

56,  65,  117,  122,  123,  135, 

141,  154 

Cleats 57,  122 

Crates    65,    66,    145,  146 

Driving     137 

Effect  of  different  classes  of 

woods  .  . 55,  156,  157 

Factors  in  correct  nailing   .  . 

55,  134,  135,  136,  152,  153, 
186 

Gauge   of   nails    

56,  117,  122,  123,  136,  154,  156 

Green   wood     157 

Head  of  nail    156 

Overdriving   nails    56,  158 

Schedule  for    ..55,   123,   158,  159 
Spacing  of  nails 

...56,    123,   136,   137,   146,  158 

Staggered    56,   57,  146 

Strapping    ...58^    140,  141 

Thickness  of  wood    . 158 

See  various  chapters. 

Nails,  wire  nails 432 

Naked  shipments — 

Chains 611 

General  considerations   ..608,  609 

Large   machinery    610,  611 

Marking    609,  610 

Pig    iron    609 

Protection  against  rust    ....  611 
War     Department     Specifica- 
tions      611,  612 

National    Association    of    Box 

Manufacturers    55 

National    Automobile    Chamber 

of  Commerce 309 

Newlin,  J.   A 152 

N.  Y.  Quurtermaster  Depot    .  .  80 

New  Zealand  ...282,  283,  284,  285 

New  Zealand  Gazette 285 

Nitric  acid    618 

Nicaragua    285 

Norway     286 

Nova  Scotia    202 

Numbering — 

Careless  numbering   36 

Character    of    108 

Consecutive    45 

Errors  in   16 

Nuts    429 

Oil   Cloth    671,  672 

Oils  

525,  526,  527,  537,  564,  570,  571 

Oleomargarine     534 


Orinoco  Eiver,   Venezuela    302 

Oruro,   Bolivia    246 

PacTcing  for  Export — 

Advantages  of  good  packing 

28,     29 

Case,  weight  of   38 

Cheap  packing  a  false  econ- 
omy   '. .       9 

Cheeking  and  weighing  goods     39 

Chicken  wire   482 

Climatic  conditions .  .   201 

Consulting   customers    28 

Criticism   of    27 

Duties,  minimizing  of  ..236,  273 
Economy  of  space  in . .  26,  29,  324 
Expensive   packing   may   cost 

more    than    possible    losses     25 
Export  packing  triangle  ....     10 

Export  service    8 

Extra    charge    for    24,     25 

Factors  in    4,   6,   17,  48,     85 

Importance  of    3,  324,  370 

Indifference    of    manufactur- 
ers   ,...23,  26,  27,  34,     35 

Inspection  before  shipment   .     30 

Instruction   sheets    377 

Method   of    packing   contents     60 
Method  of  packing  to  be  con- 
sidered         26 

Muleback,  for   216 

New  spirit  in 5 

Not    domestic    38,     49 

Packing  department 

19,  20,  23,  24,  374 

Parcel  post   691 

Results  of  poor  packing  ....  86 
Second-hand   material    ...  17,     29 

Special    instructions    

7,   10,  26,  33,  36,  233 

Special   packing    232,  233 

Tin,  use  of 43,     44 

See  various  chapters. 

Packing  house  products 

..565,  566,  569,   570,   645,  646 

Packing  list 45,  60,  341,  635 

Pails   618 

Paints    521,    522,  525 

Paita,  Peru  288 

Panama    286 

Paraguay     287 

Paper    

649,  650,  651,  652,  653,  654,  657 

Para,   Brazil    246,  247 

Paramaribo,    Dutch   Guiana    . .  260 
Parcel  post — 
Addressing    690,  691 


720 


INDEX 


Parcel  post — continued 

Advertising  matter  by  .  .  684,  685 
American  Red  Cross    . .  .  698,  704 

Bags    704 

Belgium    705 

Bundles    704 

Canada     697 

Celluloid     698 

"Certificate  of  mailing"    ..   687 

Combination  package    710 

Customs  declaration    688 

Customs  duties  685 

Egypt   696 

Fibre    and    strawboard    con- 
tainers       698 

Fountain    pens    694,  709 

General  considerations  ..681,  682 
General    regulations    . . .  684,  686 

Hats    708 

Inspection  of 693,  694 

Insurance 687 

Interior  preparation   .  . .  .694,  695 
Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion specifications  for  con- 
tainers     

698,  699,  700,  70l,  702,  703, 

704 

Jewelry 695 

Liquids     705 

Metal   containers    695,696 

Outside  container 696 

Packing    691,  692,  693 

Registration    687 

Russian  parcels  691,  697 

Samples  by   684 

Talking   machine   records    . .   709 

Textiles    482 

Tin  containers    698 

War    Department     Specifica- 
tions     691 

Watches   706 

When  to  use    683 

Wood  containers    698 

Partitions  as  shock  absorbers  .   101 

Patras,  Greece    264 

Pernambuco,   Brazil    247 

Penang,  Straits  Settlements   . .  297 

Persia     287 

Persian  Gulf 287 

Peru   202,  211,  212,  288 

Pharmaceutical  products   

450,   451,    538,  539 

Philippine   Islands    

24,  44,  288,  289,  290,  291,  292 

"Philippine  Tariff  Act*'    289 

Phonographs   512,  513,  514 

Pianos    507,  508,  511 


PAGE 

PicMed   meat    570 

Picture   mouldings    603,679 

Pig  iron 609 

Pilfering — 

Advertising   matter   on  cases 

assists    16,  226 

Argentina     240 

Attitude    of    steamship    com- 
panies   222 

Australia    240 

Automobiles    306,  321 

Bales     175 

Barrels     5B2 

Canned    goods    527 

Cartoned    goods    551 

Chicken   wire    482,   484,659 

Claims    for    223 

Deck  cargo    629 

Dominican    Republic     258 

''Foul"   bill  of  lading    ....  227 

Fountain   pens    694 

Goods    exposed    to    14,  226 

How    it   occurs    223,224 

Insurance  ..29,  30,  220,  221,  222 

Italy    272 

Losses  due  to   219 

Methods  of   preventing    .... 
14,  43,  142,  224,  225,  226, 

227,  228,  229,  482 

Parcel-post  packages  221 

Safety  clips  . .  142,  228,  229,  230 

Salvador  296 

Sealing  boxes   

...43,   123,   143,  228,   229,  230 

Shoes    552,  553 

Strapping  to  prevent,  40,  142,  226 

Textiles 483 

Tires   665 

IT.  S.  Chamber  of  Commerce 

of  the  Argentine  on   221 

Watches    676,  706 

Pirceus,  Greece    264 

Plaster    584 

Plows     374,  403 

Poland    292 

Port  Castries,  St.  Lucia   250 

Port   conditions    • 202 

Port   Limon,   Costa   Bica    ....  257 

Porto   Eico    293 

Portugal     293 

Portuguese   East   Africa    (Mo- 

zamhique) 293 

Portuguese   West  Africa   294 

Potosi,  Bolivia   246 

Precision  instruments   421 

Printing  presses  

354,    355,    356,    359,  360 


INDEX 


721 


PAGB 

Progreso,  Mexico  275 

Puerto  Cahello,  Venezuela  . . .  302 
Puerto  Colombia,  Colombia  . .  256 
Puntarenas,  Costa  Eica   "  257 

Bailway  cars   636,  639 

Becoopering    ..33,    34,    35,    36,     37 

Red  Sea 204,  234,  239,  263 

Beduction  of  size  of  case.  See 
Shrinking  the  package. 
Chapter  XII,  page  324. 

Beflectors    464,  467 

Bepublic   of   Azerbaijan    295 

Bepublic   of    Georgia    295 

BSunion    294 

Bio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil    247 

Bio  Grande  do  Sul,  Brazil 247 

Bivets  429 

Bosario    239 

Bosin     584 

Botterdam,   Holland    266 

Boumania     294 

Bubber    goods    

....29,  210,  211,  554,  557,  600 

Bussia   294,  691,  697 

Bust  Prevention — 

Automobiles     318 

Factors  in 62,     95 

Iron  and  steel  62 

Machinery    62,   95,.  337,  338 

Metal   containers    96 

Ventilating   cases   to   prevent 

95,     96 

See  various  chapters. 

Saba    260,  261 

Safe  Pack  Mills   78,   116,  125 

Safes    599 

Safety  clips  for  pilfering    

142,  224,  225,  226,  227,  228,  229 

St.    Barthelemy    263 

St.  Eustatius   260,  261 

St.  Kitts  250,  261 

St.    Lucia    250 

St.   Martin    260,   261,263 

St.    Vincent    250 

"Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Act'* 

of  New  Zealand   284 

Salonica,    (Greece    264 

Salvador 202,    295,  478 

Sanitary    war^    669,    670,671 

San  Lorenzo,  Honduras    ..217,  267 

Santiago,    Chile    212 

Santiago,  Cuba 257 

Santos,   Brazil    247 

Scabbim,^    71,    '72 

Scales.  See  Weighing  Ap- 
paratus. 


Screws 73,  74,    75 

Sealing — 

Boxes    

..123,   142,  143,  228,  229,  230 

Safety  seals    

43,    142,    228,    229,  230 

Straps     43 

Sewing   machines    218,  425,  426 

Sewing   of   bags    595 

Sheathmg 144 

*  *  Shiplap    Joint "     131 

Shock  absorbers   ...60,  61,  98,  101 

Shoes 551,  552,  553,  554,  557 

Shotguns     417 

Shovels     417,  600 

Shrinking   the  package — 

Accomplishments    325 

Advantages    of    ...324,    325,373 

Disassembling    332,  333 

How  it  may  be  done  

325,  326,  329,  330 

Siam   296 

Siberia    236,  348 

*  *  Side-compression-test "    199 

"Side-drop-test"     199 

Sifting   from   bags    594,595 

Silk  goods   482,  483,  484 

Silverware   677 

Singapore,    Straits    Settlements  296 
Skids- 
Crates   ....  69,   72,   147,   347,  350 

Importance  of    109,  110,  113 

Slots  for  slinging 114 

Slotting  for  sling    72,  114,  148 

Slings,    position    of,   shown    by 

marking    108,  113,  628 

Slushing  compound    .  . .  .96,  97,  634 

Small  boxes,  combining 

643,  644,  645 

Small  parts   103 

Smoked  meats  646 

Smyrna  .• 298 

Soda  ash    584 

Somaliland.     See  French,  Brit- 
ish, etc. 

South  America 

49,  202,  203,  211,  216,  522, 

553,  678 

Spain    296 

Spring  steel  582 

Staggering  nails   57,     66 

Staples    118 

Staves    604,  605 

Steam  pumps 353 

Steel 45,  46,  208,  607 

Steel  bars   605,  607 

Steel  cylinders    625,  626 


722 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Stenciling    

16,    45,    46,    59,    108,    321,  635 

Storage  batteries 462,  463 

Stoves 62 

Straits  Settlements   296 

Strapping — 

Automobile  cases 321 

Bales    81,   82,  151 

Crates    72,  149 

Increases  strength  of  case  . .   139 

Joints  of   121 

Kinds    57,    104,    107,  139 

Location   of    

58,    104,    117,    120,  140 

Method  of  applying 

57,  58,  107,  120 

Nailing   ..58,   104,   121,   140,  141 

Nailless 58,  139,  140,  159 

Packing    582,  608 

Pilfering  40,  139 

Stretching    58,    121,  140 

Thickness  and  width  of   .... 

57,    58,  120 

War    Department    Specifica- 
tions       117 

Wire    107,    139,  140 

See  various  chapters. 

Straw    61 

Stuffing  material   60,  61,    98 

Suez  Canal    204 

Sulphuric  acid   613 

Surfacing   117,  122,  131,  132 

Sweden     , 297 

Switchboards 342 

Switzerland   297 

Sydney,  Australia   240 


Table  glassware 443,  444 

Tags    59,  337,  341,  399,  598 

Talking  machines   ....512,  513,  514 

Talking   machine   records    709 

Tamatave,   Madagascar    275 

Tampico,  Mexico   275 

Tariffs 232,  235 

Tarma,  Peru  212 

Tegucigalpa,    Honduras    ..217,267 
Textiles — 

Bales 473,  474,  487 

Book  cloths 481 

Case  lining 473 

Cases    474,    482,  485 

Chicken  wire  in  bales  . .  .482,  484 
Criticism  of  American  pack- 
ing   474,  475,  476,  477 

English  methods 

475,  476,  477,  478 


Textiles — continued 

General  considerations   

470,    471,  472 

Hosiery     481 

Knit  goods    481 

Parcel    post    shipments    482 

Silks    482,    483,  484 

Strapping  cases 473,  485,  486 

Tin  lining   473,  483,  487 

War     Department     Specifica- 
tions       474 

Waterproofing  

473,  482,  484,  485,  486 

Three  Way  Corner  66,  147 

Threshing   machines    383 

Tin    plate     430,  431 

Tin   in   export  packing    

43,    44,    64,    96,    417,    508, 
551,    552,    558,    559,    659, 

677,  678 

Tinned  Goods — 

Biscuits    532 

Cereals    531 

Confectionery     533,  534 

Crackers   532 

Economy  of   space    520 

Flour 537,  538 

General  considerations  ..519,  520 

Graphite  products    525 

Hops 539,  540 

Lard    534,    537,  646 

Miscellaneous   goods    527 

Oils   525,  526,  527,  537 

Paints    521,    522,  525 

Pharmaceutical  products  ..... 

538,  539 

Pilfering 527 

Preservation  of  labels  ....  528 
Printing  inks  .  .540,  543,  544,  545 
Square  tins  vs.  round  tins  .  . 

.520,  527 

War     Department     Specifica- 
tions    520 

Tires,  automobile   

..600,   663,   664,   665,  666,  669 

Tobacco    584 

Tobago    250 

Toys    560 

Tractors — 

Boxed    assembled     390 

Construction  of  cases   391 

Crates   396 

Dissembling     

...391,  395,  396,  399,  400,  403 
General    considerations     ....   389 

Instruction   sheets    392 

Markings    396 


INDEX 


723 


PAGE 

Tractors — continued 

Protection    395 

Slushing     399 

*' Trade    Descriptions    Act    of 

Australia,"   241,   242,   243,  244 

Trinidad   250,  302 

Tri2wli    297 

Trujillo,   Honduras    217 

Tunis    298 

Two-Trip  package 646,  665 

Tyloses    198 

Typewriters    514,   517 

Uganda , 298 

Union  of  South  Africa    299 

United  Kingdom,  299,  300,  301,  302 

Uruguay     301 

Valencia,  Venezuela  302 

Valparaiso,  Chile    216 

Venezuela   ..302,  468,  478,  680,  709 

Ventilating  cases    95,  96 

Vera  Cruz,  Mexico   275 

War  Department — 

Baling     149 

Bands   for   bales    82 

Boxing   specifications    116 

Crating  specifications    143 

Drums     615 

Export  packing  in  boxes,  119,  347 

Goods  in  tins   520 

Hardware   in   barrels    583 

Incandescent  lamps   461 

Lumber     127 

Marking   specifications    152 

Naked  shipmeiits 611,  612 

Packing  machinery    333,  341 

Packing    wool    or    hair    474 

Paper    657 

Parcel  post   691 

Photographic  materials 468 

Protection    of    bright    parts    337 

Savings   by   baling    77 

Savings    by    shrinking    pack- 
age       324 


War  Department — continued 

Shovels      603 

Size  of  bale 81 

Steel  pipe    607 

Waterproof   paper    62,   83 

Wire-bound  boxes    118 

Watclies    675,   676,   677,  706 

Water  meters   418 

Waterpi'oofing — 

Automobiles 317 

Bales    83,  150 

Cartoned  goods 551 

Cases 91,  92,  95,  96,  119 

Cases  to  Australia 29 

Deck  cargo    628 

General  need  of   62 

Leather     658 

Method   of  lining  cases,   119,  120 

Parcel  post    694 

War  Department  paper   ...62,  63 

Waterproof  papers 63 

Weighing  apparatus    414 

Weighing  goods  39 

Weights — 

Legal,  net,  gross   235,  236 

Machinery    343 

On    eases    23,     34 

See   different    chapters. 
See  various  countries. 

Willemstadt,   Curasao    260 

Windmills    385 

Windward  Islands 250 

Wire   431,  581,  606,  607,  608 

Wire-bound  boxes    118 

Wire    for   strapping,  107,    139,  140 

Wire  nails  578 

Wire    netting    646. 

Wire-stitching  machinery    361 

Wire-working   machinery    362 

Writing  inks  452,  455 

Yunnan    254 

Zanzibar 303 

Zeyla,  British  Somaliland 250 

Zinc  lining    678 


>-r  HA 


/' 


